The travels of Marco Polo the Venetian

EVERYMAN S LIBRARY
EDITED BY ERNEST RHYS

TRAVEL AND
TOPOGRAPHY

MARCO POLO S TRAVELS

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

JOHN MASEFIELD

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FIRST ISSUE OF THIS EDITION . . 1908
REPRINTED ..... 1911, 1914

INTRODUCTION

MARCO POLO, the subject of this memoir, was born at Venice
in the year 1 254. He was the son of Nicolo Polo, a Venetian
of noble family, who was one of the partners in a trading
house, engaged in business with Constantinople. In the year
1260, this Nicolo Polo, in company with his junior partner,
his brother Maffeo, set out across the Euxine on a trading
venture to the Crimea. They prospered in their business,
but were unable to return to their base, owing to the break
ing out of a Tartar war on the road by which they had come.
As they could not go back, they went forward, crossing the
desert to Bokhara, where they stayed for three years. At
the end of the third year (the fifth of their journey) they were
advised to visit the Great Khan Kublai, the " Kubla Khan "
of Coleridge s poem. A party of the Great Khan s envoys
were about to return to Cathay, and the two brothers there
fore joined the party, travelling forward, northward and
northeastward," for a whole year, before they reached the
Khan s Court in Cathay. The Khan received them kindly,
and asked them many questions about life in Europe, especi
ally about the emperors, the Pope, the Church, and " all
that is done at Rome." He then sent them back to Europe
on an embassy to the Pope, to ask His Holiness to send a
hundred missionaries to convert the Cathaians to the Chris
tian faith. He also asked for some of the holy oil from the
lamp of the Holy Sepulchre. The return journey of the
brothers (from Cathay to Acre) took three years. On their
arrival at Acre the travellers discovered that the Pope was
dead. They therefore decided to return home to Venice to
wait until the new Pope should be elected. They arrived at
Venice in 1269, to find that Nicolo s wife had died during her
husband s absence. His son Marco, our traveller, was then
fifteen years old. He had probably passed his childhood in
the house of one of his uncles at Venice.

Nicolo and Maffeo Polo remained at Venice for a couple of
years, waiting for a Pope to be elected, but as there seemed to

vii

viii Introduction

be no prospect of this happening, they determined to return
to the Great Khan, to tell him how their mission had failed.
They therefore set out again (in 1271) and Marco, now seven
teen years old, went with them. At Acre they obtained a
letter from a Papal Legate, stating how it came about that
the message had not been delivered. They had already
obtained some of the holy oil, so that they were free to pro
ceed. They had not gone very far upon their journey when
they were recalled to Acre by the above-mentioned Syrian
Legate, who had just heard that he had been elected Pope.
The new Pope did not send a hundred missionaries, as
Kublai had asked, but he appointed instead two preaching
friars, who accompanied the Polos as far as Armenia, where
rumours of war frightened them into returning. The Polos
journeyed on for three years and a half, and arrived at
the Khan s court (at Shangtu, not far from Pekin) in the
middle of 1275. The Khan received them "honourably and
graciously," making much of Marco, " who was then a young
gallant." In a little while, when Marco had learned the
speech and customs of the : Tartars," the Khan employed
him in public business, sending him as a visiting adminis
trator to several wild and distant provinces. Marco noted
carefully the strange customs of these provinces, and de
lighted the Khan with his account of them. On one of these
journeys Marco probably visited the southern states of India.
After some seventeen years of honourable service with
Kublai, the three Venetians became eager to return to Venice.
They were rich men, and Kublai was growing old, and they
knew that Kublai s death " might deprive them of that
public assistance by which alone they could expect to sur
mount the innumerable difficulties of so long a journey."
But Kublai refused to allow them to leave the Court, and
even " appeared hurt at the application." It chanced, how
ever, that at this time, Arghun, Khan of Persia, had sent
ambassadors to Kublai to obtain the hand of a maiden "from
among the relatives of his deceased wife." The maiden,
aged seventeen, and very beautiful, was about to accompany
the ambassadors to Persia; but the ordinary overland routes
to Persia were unsafe, owing to wars among the Tartars. It
was necessary for her to travel to Persia by ship. The
envoys begged Kublai that the three Venetians might come
with them in the ships " as being persons well skilled in
the practice of navigation." Kublai granted their request,

Introduction ix

though not very gladly. He fitted out & jplendid squadron
of ships, and despatched the three Venetians with the Per
sians, first granting them the golden tablet or safe-conduct,
which would enable them to obtain supplies on the way.
They sailed from a Chinese port about the beginning of 1292.

The voyage to Persia occupied about two years, during
which time the expedition lost six hundred men. The Khan
of Persia was dead when they arrived; so the beautiful
maiden was handed over to his son, who received her kindly.
He gave the Venetians safe-conduct through Persia; indeed
he sent them forward with troops of horse, without which,
in those troublous days, they could never have crossed the
country. As they rode on their way they heard that the
great Khan Kublai, their old master, had died. They arrived
safely at Venice some time in the year 1295.

There are some curious tales of their arrival at home. It
is said that they were not recognised by their relatives, and
this is not strange, for they returned in shabby Tartar
clothes, almost unable to speak their native tongue. It was
not until they had ripped the seams of the shabby clothes,
producing stores of jewels from the lining, that the relatives
decided to acknowledge them. (This tale may be read as
allegory by those who doubt its truth as history.) Marco
Polo did not stay long among his relatives. Venice was at
war with Genoa, and the Polo family, being rich, had been
called upon to equip a galley, even before the travellers
returned from Asia. Marco Polo sailed in command of this
galley, in the fleet under Andrea Dandolo, which was de
feated by the Genoese off Curzola on the jth September
1296. Marco Polo was carried as a prisoner to Genoa, where
he remained, in spite of efforts made to ransom him, for about
three years, during which time he probably dictated his book
in very bad French to one Rustician of Pisa, a fellow-prisoner.
He returned to Venice during the year 1299, and probably
married shortly afterwards.

Little is known of his life after his return from prison.
We know that he was nicknamed " II Milione " on account
of his wonderful stories of Kublai s splendour; but as he was
rich and famous the slighting nickname was probably partly
a compliment. Colonel Yule, the great editor of Marco Polo,
has discovered that he stood surety for a wine-smuggler,
that he gave a copy of his book to a French noble, and that
he sued a commission agent for the half profits on the sale of

x Introduction

some musk. It was at one time thought that he was the
Marco Polo who failed (in 1302) to have his water-pipe in
spected by the town plumber. This sin has now been laid
upon another man of the same name, who " was ignorant
of the order on that subject. JJ On the 9th of January, 1324,
feeling himself to be growing daily feebler, he made his will,
which is still preserved. He named as his trustees his wife
Donata and his three daughters, to whom the bulk of his
estate was left. He died soon after the execution of this will.
He was buried in Venice without the door of the Church of
San Lorenzo; but the exact site of the grave is unknown.
No known authentic portrait of the man exists; but as in
the case of Columbus, there are several fanciful portraits, of
which the best dates from the seventeenth century.

Marco Polo s book was not received with faith by his con
temporaries. Travellers who see marvellous things, even in our
own day (the name of Bruce will occur to everyone) are seldom
believed by those who, having stayed at home, have all the
consequences of their virtue. When Marco Polo came back
from the East, a misty, unknown country, full of splendour
and terrors, he could not tell the whole truth. He had to
leave his tale half told lest he should lack believers. His
book was less popular in the later Middle Ages than the
fictions and plagiarisms of Sir John Mandeville. Marco
Polo tells of what he saw; the compiler of Mandeville, when
he does not steal openly from Pliny, Friar Odoric, and others,
tells of what an ignorant person might expect to see, and
would, in any case, like to read about, since it is always
blessed to be confirmed in an opinion, however ill-grounded
it may be. How little Marco Polo was credited may be
judged from the fact that the map of Asia was not modified
by his discoveries till fifty years after his death.

His book is one of the great books of travel. Even now,
after the lapse of six centuries, it remains the chief authority
for parts of Central Asia, and of the vast Chinese Empire.
Some of his wanderings are hard to follow; some of the
places which he visited are hard to identify; but the labour
of Colonel Yule has cleared up most of the difficulties, and
confirmed most of the strange statements. To the geo
grapher, to the historian, and to the student of Asiatic life,
the book of Marco Polo will always be most valuable. To
the general reader, the great charm of the book is its
romance.

Introduction xi

It is accounted a romantic thing to wander among
strangers and to eat their bread by the camp-fires of the
other half of the world. There is romance in doing thus,
though the romance has been over-estimated by those whose
sedentary lives have created in them a false taste for action.
Marco Polo wandered among strangers; but it is open to
anyone (with courage and the power of motion) to do the
same. Wandering in itself is merely a form of self-indul
gence. If it adds not to the stock of human knowledge, or
if it gives not to others the imaginative possession of some
part of the world, it is a pernicious habit. The accLuisition
of knowledge, the accumulation of fact, is noble only in those
few who have that alchemy which transmutes such clav

J ___j^. | -** lfrinB * ii^fft<l* * r " l **> n<^i^ M| ^_____^^ai"*** rlnT * *** i*Tir~" " iinim >i,,m ny ^u^yi*>lH^^Ti**<r^M>> 11 ^* J

to heavenly eterna^gold. It may be thought that many
travellers have given their readers great imaginative posses
sions; but the imaginative possession is not measured in
miles and parasangs, nor do the people of that country write
accounts of birds and beasts. It is only the wonderful
traveller who sees a wonder, and only five travellers in the
world s history have seen wonders. The others have seen
birds and beasts, rivers and wastes, the earth and the (local)
fulness thereof. The five travellers are Herodotus, Caspar,
Melchior, Balthazar, and Marco Polo himself. The wonder
of Marco Polo is this that _he created Asia for the European

WHMHI^ ^^^^^-^n*&t&f*&* l *B*Vf*& m * * t *******^t*1 l ^^*** f ^*^**

mind.

When Marco Polo went to the East, the whole of Central
Asia, so full of splendour and magnificence, so noisy with
nations and kings, was like a dream in men s minds. Euro
peans touched only the fringe of the East. At Acre, at
Byzantium, at the busy cities on the Euxine, the merchants
of Europe bartered with the stranger for silks, and jewels and
precious balms, brought over the desert at great cost, in
caravans from the unknown. The popular conception of
the East was taken from the Bible, from the tales of old
Crusaders, and from the books of the merchants. All that
men knew of the East was that it was mysterious, and that
our Lord was born there. Marco Polo, almost the first
European to see the East, saw her in all her wonder, more
fully than any man has seen her since. His picture of the
East is the picture which we all make in our minds when we
repeat to ourselves those two strange words, " the East/
and give ourselves up to the image which that symbol evokes.
It may be that the Western mind will turn to Marco Polo for

xii Introduction

a conception of Asia long after " Cathay has become an
American colony.

It is difficult to read Marco Polo as one reads historical
facts. One reads him as one reads romance; as one would
read, for instance, the " Eve of St. Mark," or the " Well at
the World s End." The East of which he writes is the East
of romance, not the East of the Anglo-Indian, with his Simla,
his missions to Tibet, and Renter telegrams. In the East of
romance there grows " the tree of the sun, or dry tree " (by
which Marco Polo passed), a sort of landmark or milestone,
at the end of the great desert. The apples of the sun and
moon grow upon that tree. Darius and Alexander fought
in its shade. Those are the significant facts about the tree
according to Marco Polo. We moderns, who care little for
any tree so soon as we can murmur its Latin name, have lost
wonder in losing faith.

The Middle Age, even as our own age is, was full of talk of
the Earthly Paradise. It may be that we have progressed,
in learning to talk of it as a social possibility, instead of as a
geographical fact. We like to think that the old Venetians
went eastward, on their famous journey, half believing that
they would arrive there, just as Columbus (two centuries
later) half expected to sight land where the golden blossoms
burn upon the trees forever." They did not find the Earthly
Paradise ; but they saw the splendours of Kublai, one of the
mightiest of earthly kings. One feels the presence of
Kublai all through the narrative, as the red wine, dropped
into the water-cup, suffuses all, or as the string supports the
jewels on a trinket. The imagination is only healthy when
it broods upon the kingly and the saintly. In Kublai, the
reader will find enough images of splendour to make glorious
the temple of his mind. When we think of Marco Polo, it
is of Kublai that we think; and, apart from the romantic
wonder which surrounds him, he is a noble person, worth our
contemplation. He is like a king in a romance. It was the
task of a kingly nature to have created him as he appears in
the book here. It makes us proud and reverent of the poetic
gift, to reflect that this king, " the lord of lords," ruler of so
many cities, so many gardens, so many fishpools, would be
but a name, an image covered by the sands, had he not wel
comed two dusty travellers, who came to him one morning
from out of the unknown, after long wandering over the
world. Perhaps when he bade them farewell the thought

Introduction xiii

occurred to him (as it occurred to that other king in the
poem) that he might come to be remembered but by this
one thing," when all his glories were fallen from him, and he
lay silent, the gold mask upon his face, in the drowsy tomb,
where the lamp, long kept alight, at last guttered, and died,
and fell to dust.

JOHN MASEFIELD.

December 1907.

ITINERARY

THE elder Polos, when they left Constantinople in the year
1260, had not planned to go far beyond the northern
borders of the Euxine. They first landed at Soldaia, in the
Crimea, then an important trading city. From Soldaia they
journeyed in a northerly and east-northeasterly direction to
Sara, or Sarra, a vast city on the Volga, where King Cam-
buscan lived, and to Bolgara, or Bolghar, where they stayed
for a year. Going south a short distance to Ucaca, another
city on the Volga, they journeyed direct to the south-east,
across the northern head of the Caspian, on the sixty days
march to Bokhara, where they stayed for three years. From
Bokhara they went with the Great Khan s people north
ward to Otrar, and thence in a north-easterly direction to the
Court of the Khan near Pekin. On their return journey,
they arrived at the sea-coast at Layas, in Armenia. From
Layas they went to Acre, and from Acre to Negropont in
Roumania, and from Negropont to Venice, where they stayed
for about two years.

On the second journey to the East, with the young Marco
Polo, they sailed direct from Venice to Acre towards the end
of the year 1271. They made a short journey southward to
Jerusalem, for the holy oil, and then returned to Acre for
letters from the Papal Legate. Leaving Acre, they got as
far as Layas, in Armenia, before they were recalled by the
newly elected Pope. On setting out again, they returned to
Layas, at that time a great city, where spices and cloth of
.gold were sold, and from which merchants journeying to the
East generally started. From Layas they pushed north
ward into Turcomania, past Casaria and Sivas, to Arzingan,
where the people wove " good buckrams." Passing Mount
Ararat, where Noah s Ark was supposed to rest, they heard
stories of the Baku oil-fields. From here they went to the
south-eastward, following the course of the Tigris to Band as.
From Bandas they seem to have made an unnecessary
journey to the Persian Gulf. The book leads one to suppose

xiv

Itinerary xv

thai they travelled by way of Tauriz (in Persian Irak) Yezd,
and Kerman, to the port of Ormuz, as though they intended
to take ship there. They could, however, have progressed
more swiftly had they followed the Tigris to Busrah, there
taken ship upon the Gulf, and sailed by way of Keis or Kisi to
Ormuz. After visiting Ormuz, they returned to Kerman by
another road, and then pushed on, over the horrible salt
desert of Kerman, through Khorassan to Balakshan. It is
possible that their journey was broken at Balakshan, owing
to the illness of Marco, who speaks of having at some time
stayed nearly a year here to recover his health. On leaving
Balakshan they proceeded through the high Pamirs to Kash-
gar, thence south-eastward by way of Khotan, not yet buried
under the sands, to the Gobi desert. The Gobi desert, like
all deserts, had a bad name as being the abode of many
evil spirits, which amuse travellers to their destruction. 1
The Polos crossed the Gobi in the usual thirty days, halting
each night by the brackish ponds which make the passage
possible. After crossing the desert, they soon entered China.
At Kan Chau, one of the first Chinese cities which they
visited, they may have stayed for nearly a year, on account
of "the state of their concerns," but this stay probably took
place later, when they were in Kublai s service. They then
crossed the province of Shen-si, into that of Shan -si, finally
arriving at Kai-ping-fu, where Kublai had built his summer
pleasure garden.

On the return journey, the Polos set sail from the port of
Zaitum, in the province of Fo-Kien. They hugged the
Chinese coast (in order to avoid the Pratas and Pracel Reefs)
and crossed the Gulf of Tong King to Champa in the south
east of Cambodia. Leaving Champa, they may have made
some stay at Borneo, but more probably they sailed direct to
the island of Bintang, at the mouth of the Straits of Malacca,
and to Sumatra, where the fleet was delayed for five months
by the blowing of the contrary monsoon. The ships seem
to have waited for the monsoon to change in a harbour on the
north-east coast, in the kingdom of Sumatra. On getting,
a fair wind, they passed by the Nicobar and Andaman Islands,
and then shaped a course for Ceylon. They put across to
the coast of Coromandel, and may perhaps have coasted as
far to the northward upon the Madras coast as Masulipatam.
On the Bombay side, they would seem to have hugged the
coast as far as they could, as far perhaps as Surat, in the

xvi Intinerary

Gulf of Cambay; but it is just possible that the descriptions
of these places were taken from the tales of pilots, and that
his fleet put boldly out to avoid the coast pirates. Marco
Polo tells us much about Aden, and about towns on the
Arabian coasts; but the fleet probably never touched at
them. All that is certainly known is that they arrived at
Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf, and passed inland to Khorassan.
On leaving Khorassan they journeyed overland, through
Persia and Greater Armenia, until they came to Trebizonda
on the Euxine Sea. Here they took ship, and sailed home
to Venice, first touching at Constantinople and at Negro-
pont. " And this was in the year 1 295 of Christ s Incarna
tion."

J. M.

CONTENTS

BOOK I

PAGE

PROLOGUE * . 9

CHAPTER

JL. ..

II. Of Armenia Minor Of the Port of Laiassus And of

the Boundaries of the Province ... 30

III. Of the Province called Turkomania, where are the

Cities of Kogni, Kaisariah, and Sevasta, and of its
Commerce ....... 32

IV. Of Armenia Major, in which are the Cities of Arzingan,

Argiron, and Darziz Of the Castle of Paipurth
Of the Mountain where the Ark of Noah rested Of
the Boundaries of the Province And of a remark
able Fountain of Oil . . . . 34

V. Of the Province of Zorzania and its Boundaries Of the
Pass where Alexander the Great constructed the
Gate of Iron And of the miraculous Circum
stances attending a Fountain at Tenis . . 37

VI. Of the Province of Mosul and its different Inhabitants
Of the People named Kurds And of the Trade
of this Country . . . . . . 41

VII. Of the great City of Baldach or Bagadet, anciently
called Babylon Of the Navigation from thence to
Balsara, situated in what is termed the Sea of India,
but properly the Persian Gulf And of the various
Sciences studied in that City .... 42

VIII. Concerning the Capture and Death of the Khalif of
Baldach, and the miraculous Removal of a
Mountain .... 44

IX. Of the noble City of Tauris, in Irak, and of its Com
mercial and other Inhabitants . . 47

X. Of the Monastery of Saint Barsamo, in the Neighbour
hood of Tauris ...... 49

XI. Of the Province of Persia . . . . 50

XII. Of the Names of the Eight Kingdoms that constitute
the Province of Persia, and of the Breed of Horses
and of Asses found therein . . . .51
XIII. Of the City of Yasdi and its Manufactures, and of the
Animals found in the Country between that place
and Kierman ...... 55

XIV. Of the Kingdom of Kierman, by the Ancients named
Karmania Of its Fossil and Mineral Productions
Its Manufactures Its Falcons And of a great
Descent observed upon passing out of that
Country ....... 50

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

XV. Of the City of Kamandu, and District of Reobarle Of
certain Birds found there Of a peculiar kind of
Oxen And of the Karaunas, a Tribe of Robbers 58
XVI. Of the City of Ormus, situated on an Island not far
from the Main, in the Sea of India Of its Com
mercial Importance And of the hot Wind that
blows there .......

XVII. Of the Shipping employed at Ormus Of the Season
in which the Fruits are produced And of the
Manner of Living and Customs of the Inhabitants

XVIII. Of the Country travelled over upon leaving Ormus,
and returning to Kierman by a different Route;
and of a Bitterness in the Bread occasioned by the
Quality of the Water .....
XIX. Of the desert Country between Kierman and Kobiam,
and of the bitter Quality of the Water

XX. Of the Town of Kobiam, and its Manufactures .

XXI. Of the Journey from Kobiam to the Province of Timo-
chain on the Northern Confines of Persia And of
a particular Species of Tree ....

XXII. Of the Old Man of the Mountain Of his Palace and
Gardens Of his Capture and his Death

XXIII. Of a fertile Plain of six Days Journey, succeeded by a

Desert of eight, to be passed in the Way to the City
of Sapurgan Of the excellent Melons produced
there And of the City of Balach

XXIV. Of the Castle named Thaikan Of the Manners of the

Inhabitants And of Salt-Hills

XXV. Of the Town of Scassem, and of the Porcupines found

XXVI. Of the Province of Balashan Of the Precious Stones
found there and which become the Property of
the King Of the Horses and the Falcons of the
Country Of the salubrious Air of the Mountains
And of the Dress with which the Women adorn
their Persons ......

Of the Province of Basci lying South of the former
Of the golden Ornaments worn by the Inhabitants
in their Ears And of their Manners

XXVII.
XXVIII.

Of the Province of Kesmur situated towards the south
east Of its Inhabitants who are skilled in Magic
Oi their Communication with the Indian Sea
And of a Class of Hermits, their Mode of Life, and
extraordinary Abstinence ....

XXIX. Of the Province of Vokhan Of an Ascent for three

Days, leading to the Summit of a high Mountain

f a peculiar Breed of Sheep found there Of the

Effect of the great Elevation upon Fires And of

the Savage Life of the Inhabitants

XXX. Of the City of Kashcar, and of the Commerce of its
Inhabitants .......

XXXI. Of the City of Samarcan, and of the Miraculous Column

in the Church of St. John the Baptist

XXXII. Of the Province of Karkan, the Inhabitants of which
are troubled with swollen Legs and with Goitres
XXXIII. Of the City of Kptan, which is abundantly supplied
with all the Necessaries of Life

63

67

69
69

72
73

77
80

82
86

90
92
93

95
96

Contents 3

CHAPTER PAGE

XXXIV. Of the Province of Peyn Of the Chalcedonies and
Jasper found in its River And of a peculiar
Custom with regard to Marriages ... 97

XXXV. Of the Province of Charchan Of the kinds of Stone
found in its Rivers And of the Necessity the
Inhabitants are under, of flying to the Desert on
the approach of the Armies of the Tartars . . 98

XXXVI. Of the Town of Lop Of the Desert in its Vicinity-
And of the strange Noises heard by those who pass
over the latter . . . . . -99

XXXVII. Of the Province of Tanguth Of the City of Sachion
Of the Custom observed there upon the Birth of a
Male Child And of the Ceremony of burning the
Bodies of the Dead. . . . . . 101

XXXVIII. Of the District of Kamul, and of some peculiar Customs

respecting the Entertainment of Strangers . 106

XXXIX Of the City of Chinchitalas 108

XL. Of the District of Succuir, where the Rhubarb is pro
duced, and from whence it is carried to all parts of
the World . . . . . . .no

XLI. Of the City of Kampion, the principal one of the Pro
vince of Tanguth Of the nature of their Idols, and
of the Mode of Life of those amongst the Idolaters
who are devoted to the services of Religion Of
the Almanac they make use of And the Customs
of the other Inhabitants with regard to Marriage 111
XLII. Of the City of Ezina Of the kinds of Cattle and Birds
found there And of a Desert extending forty
Days Journey towards the North . . .114
XLIII. Of the City of Karakoran, the first in which the

Tartars fixed their Residence . . . .115

XLIV. Of the Origin of the Kingdom of the Tartars Of the
Quarter from whence they came And of their
former Subjection to Un-khan, a Prince of the
North, called also Prester John . . .116
XLV. Concerning Chingis- Khan, first Emperor of the Tartars,
and his Warfare with Un-khan, whom he over
threw, and of whose Kingdom he possessed
himself . . . . . . .118

XLVI. Of six successive Emperors of the Tartars, and of the
Ceremonies that take place when they are carried
for Interment to the Mountain of Altai . . iao
XLVII. Of the Wandering Life of the TartarsOf their
Domestic Manners, their Food, and the Virtue and
useful Qualities of their Women . . .123
XLVIII. Of the Celestial and Terrestrial Deities of the Tartars,
and of their Modes of Worship Of their Dress,
Arms, Courage in Battle, Patience under Priva
tions, and Obedience to their Leaders . . 126
XLIX. Of the Tartar Armies, and the manner in which they
are constituted Of their Order of Marching Of
their Provisions And of their Mode of attacking
the Enemy ....... 128

L. Of the Rules of J ustice observed by these People And
of an imaginary Kind of Marriage contracted
between the deceased Children of different
Families . . . . . . -13*

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

LI. Of the Plain of Bargu near Kara-koran Of the
Customs of its Inhabitants Of the Ocean, at the
Distance of forty Days Journey from thence^
Of the Falcons produced in the Country on its
Borders And of the Bearings of the Northern
Constellation to an Observer in those Parts . 133

LII. Of the Kingdom of Erginul, adjoining to that of Kam-
pion, and of the City of Singui Of a Species of
Oxen covered with extremely fine Hair Of the
Form of the Animal that yields the Musk, and the
Mode of taking it And of the Customs of the
Inhabitants of that Country, and the Beauty of
the Women ....... 135

LIII. Of the Province of Egrigaia, and of the City of Kalacha
Of the Manners of its Inhabitants And of the
Camelots manufactured there . . . .139

LIV. Of the Province of Tenduk, governed by Princes of the
Race of Prester John, and chiefly inhabited by
Christians Of the Ordination of their Priests
And of a Tribe of People called Argon, the most
personable and the best-informed of any in these
Countries ..... .140

LV. Of the Seat of Government of the Princes of the Family
of Prester John, called Gog and Magog Of the
Manners of its Inhabitants Of their Manufacture
of Silk And of the Mines of Silver worked there 141

LVI. Of the City of Changanor Of different Species of
Cranes And of Partridges and Quails bred in
that Part by the Orders of the Grand Khan . 143

LVII, Of the Grand Khan s beautiful Palace in the City of
Shandu Of his Stud of White Brood-Mares,
with whose Milk he performs an Annual Sacrifice
Of the wonderful Operations of the Astrologers
on occasions of Bad Weather Of the Ceremonies
practised by them in the Hall of the Royal Palace
And of two Descriptions of Religious Mendi
cants, with their Modes of Living . . .145

BOOK II

I. Oi the admirable Deeds of Kublai-Kaan, the Emperor
now reigning Of the Battle he fought with
Nay an, his Uncle, and of the Victory he obtained 152
11. Of the Return of the Grand Khan to the City of Kan-
balu after his Victory Of the Honour he confers
on the Christians, the Jews, the Mahometans, and
the Idolaters, at their respective Festivals And
the Reason he assigns for his not becoming a
Christian . . . . . . .158

III. Of the kind of Rewards granted to those who conduct

themselves well in Fight, and of the Golden
Tablets which they receive . . . .161

IV. Of the Figure and Stature of the Grand Khan Of

his four principal Wives And of the annual
Selection of Young W T omen for him in the Pro
vince of Ungut . . . . . .162

Contents

CHAPTER

V. Of the number of the Grand Khan s Sons by his four
Wives, whom he makes Kings of different Pro
vinces, and of Chingis his First-born Also of the
Sons by his Concubines, whom he creates Lords

VI. Of the great and admirable Palace of the Grand Khan,
near to the City of Kanbalu ....

VII. Of the new City of Tai-du, built near to that of Kanbalu
Of a Rule observed respecting the Entertain
ment of Ambassadors And of the nightly Police
of the City .......

VIII. Of the treasonable Practices employed to cause the
City of Kanbalu to rebel, and of the Apprehension
and Punishment of those concerned

IX. Of the Personal Guard of the Grand Khan
X. Of the Style in which the Grand Khan holds his Public
Courts, and sits at Table with all his Nobles Of
the Manner in which the Drinking Vessels of Gold
and Silver, filled with the Milk of Mares and
Camels, are disposed in the Hall And of the
Ceremony that takes place when he drinks

XI. Of the Festival that is kept throughout the Dominions
of the Grand Khan on the Twenty-eighth of
September, being the Anniversary of his Nativity
XII. Of the White Feast, held on the First Day of the
Month of February, being the Commencement of
their Year Of the Number of Presents then
brought And of the Ceremonies that take place
at a Table whereon is inscribed the Name of the
Grand Khan .......

XIII. Of the Quantity of Game taken and sent to the
Court, during the Winter Months

XIV. Of Leopards and Lynxes used for hunting Deer Of
Lions habituated to the Chase of various Animals
And of Eagles taught to seize Wolves
XV. Of two Brothers who are principal Officers of the
Chase to the Grand Khan ,

XVI. Of the Grand Khan s proceeding to the Chase, with
his Gerfalcons and Hawks Of his Falconers
And of his Tents ......

XVII. Of the Multitude of Persons who continually resort to
and depart from the City of Kanbalu And of
the Commerce of the Place ....

XVIII. Of the kind of Paper Money issued by the Grand Khan,
and made to pass current throughout his
Dominions .......

XIX. Of the Council of Twelve great Officers appointed for
the Affairs of the Army, and of Twelve others, for
the general Concerns of the Empire .

XX. Of the Places established on all the great Roads for
supplying Post-Horses Of the Couriers on Foot
And of the Mode in which the Expense is
defrayed .......

XXI. Of the Relief afforded by the Grand Khan to all the
Provinces of his Empire, in Times of Dearth or
Mortality of Cattle

XXII. Of the Trees which he causes to be planted at the
Sides of the Roads, and of the Order in which they
are kept

PAGE
165

166

176
181

182
186

188
193

193
194

195
20 1

202
205

207
212
2I 4

Contents

XXVIII.

XXIX.
XXX.

XXXI.
XXXII.

XXXIII.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

XL.

XLI.

XLII.

XLIII.
XLIV.

XLV.

XLVI.

XLVII

XLVIII.

XLIX.

L.

LI.

LII.

LIII.

LIV.

LV.

LVI.

LVII.

LVIII.

LIX.

LX.

LXI.
LXII.

LXIII.

LXIV.
LXV.

CHAPTER PAGE

XXIII. Of the kind of Wine made in the Province of Cathay

And of the Stones used there for burning in the
manner of Charcoal . . . . .214

XXIV. Of the great and admirable Liberality exercised by the

Grand Khan towards the Poor of Kanbalu, and
other Persons who apply for Relief at his Court 215
XXV. Of the Astrologers of the City of Kanbalu . .217

XXVI. Of the Religion of the Tartars Of the Opinions they
hold respecting the Soul And of some of their
Customs .......

XXVII. Of the River named Pulisangan, and of the Bridge over

IT, .....

Of the City of Gouza

Of the Kingdom of Ta-in-fu

Of the City of Pi-an-fu

Of the Fortress of Thaigin or Tai-gin

Of the very large and noble River called the Kara

moran ....

Of the City of Ka-chan-fu
Of the City of Ken-zan-fu
Of the Boundaries of Cathay and Manji
Of the Province of Sin- din- fu, and of the great River

ZV13.il *

Of the Province of Thebeth .....
Of the Province of Kain-du .....
Of the great Province of Karaian, and of Yachi its

principal City ......

Of the Province named Karazan ....

Of the Province of Kardandan and the City of Vochang
Of the Manner in which the Grand Khan effected the

Conquest of the Kingdom of Mien and Bangala
Of an uninhabited Region, and of the Kingdom of Mien
Of the City of Mien, and of a grand Sepulchre of its

King .....

Of the Province of Bangala

Of the Province of Kangigu

Of the Province of Amu .

Of Tholornan ....

Of the Cities of Chintigui, Sidin-f u, Gin-gui, and Pazan-fu 264
Of the City of Chan-glu ..... 267

Of the City of Chan-gli ...... 268

Of the City of Tudin-fu . . . . .268

Of the City of Singui-matu . . . . .270

Of the great River called the Kara-moran, and of the

Cities of Koi-gan-zu and Kuan-zu . . .272
Of the most noble Province of Manji, and of the Manner

in which it was subdued by the Grand Khan 273

Of the City of Koi-gan-zu . . . . -277
Of the Town of Pau-ghin ..... 277

Of the City of Kain . ... 278

Of the Cities of Tin-gui and Chin-gui . . .278
Of the City of Yan-gui, of which Marco Polo held the

Government ....... 279

Of the Province of Nan-ghin . . 280

Of the City of Sa-yan-fu, that was taken by the means

of Nicolo and Maffeo Polo . . . .280

Of the City of Sin-gui and of the very great River

Kiang ....... 283

Of the City of Kayn-gui ... 285

Of the City of Chan-ghian-fu . . . 286

219

222
224
226
227
227

230

231
231
233

234
236

240

243
246

249
252

257

258
260
261
262
263

CHAPTER

LXVI.

LXVII.

LXVIII.

LXIX.

LXX.

LXXI.

LXXII.

LXXIII.

LXXIV.

LXXV.

LXXVI.

LXXVII.

Contents

Of the City of Tin-gui-gui .

Of the Cities of Sin-gui and Va-giu

Of the noble and magnificent City of Kin-sai

Of the Revenues of the Grand Khan

Of the City of Ta-pin-zu ....

Of the City of Uguiu . ...

Of the Cities of Gen-gui, Zen-gian, and Gie-za .

Of the Kingdom or Viceroyalty of Kon-cha, and

capital City named Fu-giu

Of the City of Kue-lin-fu ....
Of the City of Un-guen .....
Of the City of Kan-giu .....
Of the City and Port of Zai-tun, and the City of Tin-

7

PAGE
287
288
290
310

31*
3*2
312

its

316
gui 317

314

BOOK III

I. Of India, distinguished into the Greater, Lesser, and
Middle Of the Manners and Customs of its
Inhabitants Of many remarkable and extra
ordinary Things to be observed there ; and, in the
first place, of the kind of Vessels employed in
Navigation .......

II. Of the Island of Zipangu .....

III. Of the nature of the Idols worshipped in Zipangu, and

of the People being addicted to eating Human

IT J vT-SI 1 *

IV. Of the Sea of Chin, between this Island and the Pro

vince of Manji ......

V. Of the Gulf of Keinan, and of its Rivers
VI. Of the Country of Ziamba, of the King of that Country,
and of his becoming tributary to the Grand Khan

VII. Of the Island of Java

VIII. Of the Islands of Sondur and Kondur, and of the

Country of Lochac .....

IX. Of the Island of Pentan, and of the Kingdom of

Malaiur . . . . .

X. Of the Island of Java Minor .....
XI. Of the Kingdom of Felech, in the Island of Java Minor
XII. Of the Second Kingdom, named Basman

XIII. Of the Third Kingdom, named Samara

XIV. Of the Fourth Kingdom, named Dragoian
XV. Of the Fifth Kingdom, named Lambri

XVI. Of the Sixth Kingdom, named Fanfur, where Meal is

procured from a certain Tree

XVII. Of the Island of Nocueran
XVIII. Of the Island of Angaman

XIX. Of the Island of Zeilan .

XX. Of the Province of Maabar

XXI. Of the Kingdom of Murphili or Monsul

XXII. Of the Province of Lac, Loac, or Lar

XXIII. Of the Island of Zeilan .

XXIV. Of the City of Kael
XXV. Of the Kingdom of Koulam

XXVI. Of Komari .
XXVII. Of the Kingdom of Dely
XXVIII. Of Malabar .
XXIX. Of the Kingdom of Guzzerat
XXX. Of the Kingdom of Kan an

321
323

327

329
330

334

335

336
337
338
339

343
344

345
347
347
348
350
366
368
372

375

376

379
380

38i
383
385

8

Contents

CHAPTER

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIII.

XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

XL.

XLI.

XLII.

XLIII.

XLIV.

XLV.

XLVI.

XLVII.

XLVIII.

XLIX.

L.

LI.

LII.

LIII.

LIV.

LV.

LVI.

LVII.

LVIII.

LIX.

LX.

LXI.
LXII.

LXIII.

LXIV.
LXV.

LXVI.

LXVII.

LXVIII.

LXIX.

LXX.

LXXI.

APPENDIX
INDEX .

Of the Kingdom of Kambaia .....

Of the Kingdom of Servenath ....

Of the Kingdom of Kesmacoran ....
Of the Islands of Males and of Females .
Of the Island of Soccotera .....
Of the great Island of Madagascar ....
Of the Island of Zenzibar .....
Of the multitude of Islands in the Indian Sea .
Of the Second or Middle India, named Abascia (or

Abyssinia)

Of the Province of Aden
Of the City of Escier
Of th3 City of Dulfar
Of the City of Kalayati
Of Ormus ....
Of those Countries which are termed the Region of

Darkness .......

Of the Province of Russia .....

Of Great Turkey .......

What the Grand Khan said of the Injuries done to him

by Kaidu .......

Of the Daughter of King Kaidu, how strong and valiant

she was .......

How Abaga sent Argon his Son with an Army
How Argon succeeded his Father in the Sovereignty
How Acornat went with his Host to fight Argon
How Argon held Council with his Barons before en
countering Acomat
How the Barons replied to Argon
How Argon sent his Messengers to Acomat
Acomat s Reply to the Message of Argon
The Battle between Argon and Acomat .
How Argon was liberated
How Argon recovered the Sovereignty
How Argon caused his Uncle Acomat to be put to

death ........

The Death of Argon ......

How Quiacatu seized upon the Sovereignty after the

Death of Argon ......

How Baidu seized upon the Sovereignty after the

Death of Quiacatu ......

Of the Lords of the Tartars of the West .

Of the War between Alau and Berca, and the Battle

they fought .......

How Berca and his Host went to meet Alau

Alau s Address to his Men .....

Of the great Battle between Alau and Berca
How Totamangu was Lord of the Tartars of the West
How Toctai sent for Nogai to Court
How Toctai proceeded against Nogai

PAGE

386
386

387
388

389
39i
395
397

398
401

402
404

405
406

411

4^3
414

417
419

420
420

421

422
423
423
424
425
425

426
427

427

428
428

429
429

430

43i
432

433
434

435
439

THE

TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO

BOOK I

PROLOGUE 1

YE emperors,, kings, dukes, marquises, earls, and knights, and
all other people desirous of knowing the diversities of the races
of mankind, as well as the diversities of kingdoms, provinces,
and regions of all parts of the East, read through this book, and
ye will find in it the greatest and most marvellous charac
teristics of the peoples especially of Armenia, Persia, India, and
Tartary, as they are severally related in the present work by
Marco Polo, a wise and learned citizen of Venice, who states
distinctly what things he saw and what things he heard from
others. For this book will be a truthful one. It must be
known, then, that from the creation of Adam to the present
day, no man, whether Pagan, or Saracen, or Christian, or
other, of whatever progeny or generation he may have been,
ever saw or inquired into so many and such great things as
Marco Polo above mentioned. Who, wishing in his secret
thoughts that the things he had seen and heard should be made
public by the present work, for the benefit of those who could
not see them with their own eyes, he himself being in the year
of our Lord 1295 2 in prison at Genoa, caused the things which
are contained in the present work to be written by master
Rustigielo, a citizen of Pisa, who was with him in the same
prison at Genoa; and he divided it into three parts.

1 This prologue, omitted by Marsden, is here translated from the Latin
text published by the French Geographical Society. It is found in the
early French version published by the same society, and in some of the
Italian manuscripts; but is only given in an abridged form in Boni s
Italian text.

2 The early French translation gives the date 1298, with which the
Italian prologues seem to agree.

9

io Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER I

i. It should be known to the reader that, at the time when
Baldwin II. was emperor of Constantinople/ where a magis
trate representing the doge of Venice then resided, 2 and in
the year of our Lord 1250^ Nicolo Polo, the father of the said
Marco, and Maffeo, the brother of Nicolo, respectable and weli-

1 Baldwin II. count of Flanders, and cousin of Louis IX. king of France,
who reigned from 1237 to 1261, was the last of the Latin emperors of
Constantinople.

2 The passage which in Ramusio s text is, " dove all* hora soleva stare
un podesta di Venetia, per nome di messer lo Dose ; " and upon which he
has written a particular dissertation, has nothing corresponding to it in
the Latii or French versions, or in the Italian text published by Boni.
The city of Constantinople and the Greek provinces had been conquered,
in 1204, by the joint arms of the French and the Venetians, the latter of
whom were commanded by their doge, the illustrious Henry Dandolo, in
person. Upon the division of the territory and the immense spoil that
fell into their possession, a larger share (including the celebrated bronze
horses of Lysippus) was assigned to the republic than to the emperor
elected on the occasion, and the aged doge, who had himself declined the
imperial title, but accepted that of Prince of Romania, maintained an
independent jurisdiction over three parts out of eight of the city, with a
separate tribunal of justice, and ended his days at the head of an army
that besieged Adrianople. It is doubtful whether any of his successors
in the high office of chief of the republic made the imperial city their
place of residence. " The doge, a slave of state," says Gibbon, " was
seldom permitted to depart from the helm of the republic; but his place
was supplied by the bail, or regent, who exercised a supreme jurisdiction
over the colony of Venetians." Such was the podesta, sometimes termed
bailo, and sometimes despoto, whose cotemporary government is here
spoken of, and whose political importance in the, then degraded state of
the empire was little inferior to that of Baldwin; whilst in the eyes of
the Polo family, as Venetian citizens, it was probably much greater. The
name of the person who exercised the functions at the time of their arrival,
is said, in the Sorenzo manuscript, to have been Misier Ponte de Veniexia,
and, in 1261, when the empire, or rather the city, was reconquered from
the Latins, the podesta was Marco Gradenigo.

3 There are strong grounds, Marsden says, for believing that this date
of 1250, although found in all the editions, is incorrect. In the manu
script, of which there are copies in the British Museum and Berlin
libraries, the commencement of the voyage is placed in 1252, and some
of the events related in the sequel render it evident that the departure,
at least, of our travellers from Constantinople, must have been some
years later than the middle of the century, and probably not sooner than
1255. How long they were detained in that city is not stated; but,
upon any calculation of the period of their arrival or departure, it is sur
prising that Grynams, the editor of the Basle and Paris edition of 1532,
and after him the learned Miiller and Bergeron, should, notwithstanding
the anachronism, introduce into their texts the date of 1269, which was
eight years after the expulsion of the emperor Baldwin, and was, in fact,
the year in which they returned to Syria from their first Tartarian
journey.

The Brothers Polo 1 1

informed men, embarked in a ship of their own, with a rich
and varied cargo of merchandise, and reached Constantinople
in safety. After mature deliberation on the subject of their
proceedings, it was determined, as the measure most likely to
improve their trading capital, that they should prosecute their
voyage into the Euxine or Black Sea. 1 With this view they
made purchases of many fine and costly jewels, and taking
their departure from Constantinople, navigated that sea to a
port named Soldaia, 2 from whence they travelled on horse
back many days until they reached the court of a powerful
chief of the Western Tartars, named Barka, 3 who dwelt in
the cities of Bolgara and Assara, 4 and had the reputation of
being one of the most liberal and civilized princes hitherto
known amongst the tribes of Tartary. He expressed much
satisfaction at the arrival of these travellers, and received
them with marks of distinction. In return for which courtesy,
when they had laid before him the jewels they brought with
them, and perceived that their beauty pleased him, they pre
sented them for his acceptance. The liberality of this conduct

1 The prosperity, riches, and political importance of the state of Venice
having arisen entirely from its commerce, the profession of a merchant
was there held in the highest degree of estimation, and its nobles were
amongst the most enterprising of its adventurers in foreign trade. To
this illustrious state might have been applied the proud character drawn
by Isaiah of ancient Tyre, which he describes as " the crowning city,
whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are the honourable of
the earth."

2 Soldaia was the name given in the middle ages to tne place (the
Tauro-Scythian port of the ancients) now called Sudak, situated near
the southern extremity of the Crimea or Tauric Chersonesus. It is de
scribed in these words: " About the midst of the said province towards
the south, as it were upon a sharp angle or point, standeth a city called
Soldaia, directly against Synopolis. And there doe all the Turkic
merchants, which traffique into the north countries, in their journey
outward, arrive, and as they return homeward also from Russia, and
the said northern regions, into Turkic." Purchas, vol. iii. p. 2.

3 This Tartar prince is usually named Bereke, the successor, and said
to be the brother, of Batu, the son of Tushi, eldest son of Jengiz-khan;
who inherited, as his portion of the dominions of his grandfather (al
though not in full sovereignty), the western countries of Kapchak or
Kipchak, Allan, Russ, and Bulgar, and died in 1256.

* The Bolgar, Bulgar, or Bulghar, here spoken of, is the name of a
town and an extensive district in Tartary, lying to the eastward of the
Wolga, and now inhabited by the Bashkirs, sometimes distinguished
from the Bulgaria on the Danube, by the appellation of the Greater
Bulgaria. Assara is the city of Sarai (with the definitive article pre
fixed), situated on the eastern arm of the Wolga, or Achtuba. " The
Astrachan mentioned by Balducci Pegoletti was not on the same spot
where that town stands now, but the ancient Astrachan was demolished,
together with Saray, by the emperor Timur, in the winter of 1395. The
old town of Saray was pretty near the ancient Astrachan." Forster.

i 2 Travels ot Marco Polo

on the part of the two brothers struck him with admiration;
and being unwilling that they should surpass him in generosity,
he not only directed double the value of the jewels to be paid
to them, but made them in addition several rich presents.

The brothers having resided a year in the dominions of this
prince, they became desirous of revisiting their native country,
but were impeded by the sudden breaking out of a war be
tween him and another chief, named Alau, who ruled over the
Eastern Tartars. 1 In a fierce and very sanguinary battle
that ensued between their respective armies, Alau was
victorious, in consequence of which, the roads being rendered
unsafe for travellers, the brothers could not attempt to return
by the way they came; and it was recommended to them, as
the only practicable mode of reaching Constantinople, to pro
ceed in an easterly direction,, by an unfrequented route, so as
to skirt the limits of Barka s territories. Accordingly they
made their way to a town named Oukaka, 2 situated on the
confines of the kingdom of the Western Tartars. Leaving
that place, and advancing still further, they crossed the Tigris, 3
one of the four rivers of Paradise, and came to a desert, the
extent of which was seventeen days journey, wherein they

1 These Eastern Tartars, as they are relatively termed, but whose
country extended no further to the east than the provinces of Persia and
Khorasan, were so named to distinguish them from the Western (cr
more properly, North-Western) Tartars mentioned in the preceding
note, who occupied the countries in the neighbourhood of the Wolga,
and from thence to the confines, or beyond the confines, of Europe.
Their chief, here named Ala-u or Hala-u, is the celebrated Hulagu, the
son of Tuli or Tulvvi, and equally with Batu, Mangu, and Kublai (the
latter of whom were his brothers), the grandson of Jengiz-khan. Being
appointed by his elder brother Mangu, to command in the southern pro
vinces of the empire, he left Kara-korum, a short time before the visit of
Rubruquis to that Tartar capital, and in the year 1255 crossed the Jihun
or Oxus, with a large army. In the following year, he destroyed the
race or sect of the Ismaelians, called also Malahidet, of whom a parti
cular account will be given hereafter, and then turned his arms against
the city of Baghdad, which he sacked in 1258; putting to death Mos-
tasem Billah, the last of the Abbassite khalifs. Upon the death of
Mangu, in 1259, Hulagu became effectively the sovereign of Persian and
Babylonian Irak, together with Khorasan; yet he still continued to
profess a nominal and respectful allegiance to his brother Kublai, who
was acknowledged as the head of the Moghul family, and reigned in
China. His death took place in 1265, at Tauris or Tabriz, his capital.

2 There can be little doubt of this being the Okak of Abulfeda; from
hence the route of our travellers may be presumed to have lain towards
the town of Jaik, on the river of that name, and afterwards, in a south
easterly direction, to the Sihun.

8 The great river crossed by our travellers, and which from its magni
tude they might think entitled to rank as one of the rivers of Paradise,
was evidently the Sihun, otherwise narr.ed the Sirr.

The Brothers at Bokhara i 3

found neither town, castle, nor any substantial building, but
only Tartars with their herds, dwelling in tents on the plain. 1
Having passed this tract they arrived at length at a well-built
city called Bokhara, 2 in a province of that name, belonging to
the dominions of Persia, and the noblest city of that kingdom,
but governed by a prince whose name was Barak. 3 Here,
from inability to proceed further, they remained three years.
It happened while these brothers were in Bokhara, that a
person of consequence and gifted with eminent talents made
his appearance there. He was proceeding as ambassador from
Alau before mentioned, to the grand khan, supreme chief of
all the Tartars, named Kublai , 4 whose residence was at the
extremity of the continent, in a direction between north
east and east. 5 Not having ever before had an opportunity,

1 The desert here mentioned is that of Karak, in the vicinity of the
Sihun or Sirr, which travellers from the north must unavoidably pass,
in order to arrive at Bokhara.

a This celebrated city, the name of which could not be easily mis
taken, and has not been disguised by the transcribers, serves materially
to establish the general direction of their course; for, having proceeded
northwards from the Crimea, they could not have reached Bokhara
otherwise than by crossing the several rivers with discharge themselves
into the upper or northern part of the Caspian.

3 This appears to be the prince whom Petis de la Croix names Berrac
Can, and D^Herbelot Barak- khan, great-grandson of Jagatai , the second
son of Jengiz-khan, who inherited Transoxiana, or the region now pos
sessed by the Usbek Tartars. Barak is said, by the latter, to have
attempted to wrest the kingdom of Khorasan from the dominion of
Abaka the son of Hulagu; but this must be a mistake, as the death of
Barak is placed by the generality of historians in 1260 (by D Herbelot,
unaccountably, in 1240), and that of Hulagu in 1265.

* Mangu appointed Kublai his viceroy in China, and gave to Hulagu
the government of such of the southern provinces of Asia as he could
reduce to obedience. Returning himself to China in 1258, he died at
the siege of Ho-cheu, in the province of Se-chuen, in the following year.
Kublai was at this time in the province of Hu-kuang, and persevered in
his efforts to render himself master of Vu-chang-fu, its capital, until he
was called away to suppress a revolt excited by his younger brother
Artigbuga, whom Mangu had left as his lieutenant at Kara-korum.
Contenting himself with exacting from the emperor of the Song, who
ruled over Manji, or southern China, the payment of an annual tribute,
he retreated to the northward, and hi 1260 was proclaimed grand khan,
at Shang-tu, which from that time became his summer residence. We
are told, however, that he had hesitated for some time to assume the
title, and did not declare his acquiescence until the arrival of an envoy
sent by his brother Hulagu (by some supposed to have been the elder),
who urged him to accept the empire. This envoy we may reasonably
presume to have been the person who arrived at Bokhara, in his way
from Persia to Khatai , during the time that Nicolo and Maffeo Polo
were detained in that city; and the period is thereby ascertained to
have been about the year 1258.

6 This vague designation of the place of residence of the grand khan
must be understood as applying to Khatai, or northern China, from

14 Travels of Marco Polo

although he wished it, of seeing any natives of Italy, he was
gratified in a high degree at meeting and conversing with these
brothers, who had now become proficients in the Tartar lan
guage; and after associating with them for several days, and
finding their manners agreeable to him, he proposed to them
that they should accompany him to the presence of the great
khan, who would be pleased by their appearance at his court,
which had not hitherto been visited by any person from their
country; adding assurances that they would be honourably
received, and recompensed with many gifts. Convinced as
they were that their endeavours to return homeward would
expose them to the most imminent risks, they agreed to this
proposal, and recommending themselves to the protection of
the Almighty, they set out on their journey in the suite of the
ambassador, attended by several Christian servants whom they
had brought with them from Venice. The course they took
at first was between the north-east and north, and an entire
year was consumed before they were enabled to reach the
imperial residence, in consequence of the extraordinary delays
occasioned by the snows and the swelling of the rivers, which
obliged them to halt until the former had melted and the
floods had subsided. Many things worthy of admiration were
observed by them in the progress of their journey, but which
are here omitted, as they will be described by Marco Polo, in
the sequel of the book.

2. Being introduced to the presence of the grand khan,
Kublai, the travellers were received by him with the conde
scension and affability that belonged to his character, and as
they were the first Latins who had made their appearance in
that country, they were entertained with feasts and honoured
with other marks of distinction. Entering graciously into
conversation with them, he made earnest inquiries on the
subject of the western parts of the world, of the emperor of
the Romans, 1 and of other Christian kings and princes. He
wished to be informed of their relative consequence, the extent
of their possessions, the manner in which justice was ad
ministered in their several kingdoms and principalities, how

which, or the adjoining district of Karchin, where Shang-tu was situated,
he was rarely absent.

1 By the emperor of the Romans is meant the emperor, whether Greek
or Roman, who reigned at Constantinople. Those countries which now
form the dominion of the Turks in Europe and Asia Minor, are vaguely
designated, amongst the more Eastern people, by the name of Rum, and
their inhabitants by that of Rumi.

The Grand Khan Kublai 15

they conducted themselves in warfare, and above all he ques
tioned them particularly respecting the pope, the affairs of the
church, and the religious worship and doctrine of the Chris
tians. Being well instructed and discreet men, they gave
appropriate answers upon all these points, and as they were
perfectly acquainted with the Tartar (Moghul) language, they
expressed themselves always in becoming terms; insomuch
that the grand khan, holding them in high estimation, fre
quently commanded their attendance.

When he had obtained all the information that the two
brothers communicated with so much good sense, he expressed
himself well satisfied, and having formed in his mind the de
sign of employing them as his ambassadors to the pope, after
consulting with his ministers on the subject, he proposed to
them, with many kind entreaties, that they should accompany
one of his officers, named Khogatal, on a mission to the see of
Rome. His object, he told them, was to make a request to
his holiness that he would send to him a hundred men of
learning, thoroughly acquainted with the principles of the
Christian religion, as well as with the seven arts, and qualified
to prove to the learned of his dominions by just and fair argu
ment, that the faith professed by Christians is superior to,
and founded upon more evident truth than, any other; that
the gods of the Tartars and the idols worshipped in their
houses were only evil spirits, and that they and the people of
the East in general were under an error in reverencing them
as divinities. He moreover signified his pleasure that upon
their return they should bring with them, from Jerusalem,
some of the holy oil from the lamp which is kept burning over
the sepulchre of our Lord Jesus Christ, whom he professed to
hold in veneration and to consider as the true God. 1 Having

1 We may reasonably suspect (without entertaining any doubt of the
embassy itself) that the expressions here put into the mouth of the
emperor, both as they regard the worship of the Tartars and the divinity
of Christ, have been heightened by the zeal of Christian transcribers.
The circumstance of Kublai , who is known to have been of an active and
inquisitive mind, requesting to be furnished with a number of mission
aries from Europe, to instruct his ignorant Tartar subjects in religion,
and more especially in the practice of useful arts, is no more than what
has been frequently done since, by the princes of half-barbarous nations,
amongst whom the doctrine of the Koran had not already taken root.
With regard to the holy oil, we find its importance thus stated by
Chardin: " Ce qu il (le clerge Armenien) vend le plus cher, ce sont les
saintes huiles, que les Grecs appellent myrone. La plupart des Chretiens
orieiitaux s imaginent. que c est un baume physiquement salutaire contre
toutes les maladies de 1 arrie. Le patriarche a seul le droit de la con-
sacrer. II la vend aux eveques et aux pretres. II y a quelques douze

1 6 Travels of Marco Polo

heard these commands addressed to them by the grand khan
they humbly prostrated themselves before him, declaring their
willingness and instant readiness to perform, to the utmost of
their ability, whatever might be the royal will. Upon which
he caused letters, in the Tartarian language, to be written in
his name to the pope of Rome, and these he delivered into
their hands. He likewise gave orders that they should be
furnished with a golden tablet displaying the imperial cipher, 1
according to the usage established by his majesty; in virtue
of which the person bearing it, together with his whole suite,
are safely conveyed and escorted from station to station by the
governors of all places within the imperial dominions, and are
entitled, during the time of their residing in any city, castle,
town, or village, to a supply of provisions and everything
necessary for their accommodation.

Being thus honourably commissioned they took their leave
of the grand khan, and set out on their journey, but had not
proceeded more than twenty days when the officer, named
Khogatal, their companion, fell dangerously ill, in the city
named Alau. 2 In this dilemma it was determined, upon con
sulting all who were present, and with the approbation of the
man himself, that they should leave him behind. In the pro
secution of their journey they derived essential benefit from
being provided with the royal tablet, which procured them
attention in every place through which they passed. Their
expenses were defrayed, and escorts were furnished. But
notwithstanding these advantages, so great were the natural
difficulties they had to encounter, from the extreme cold, the
snow, the ice, and the flooding of the rivers, that their pro
gress was unavoidably tedious, and three years elapsed before
they were enabled to reach a sea-port town in the lesser

ans que celui de Perse se mit en tete d empecher les ecclesiastiques
Armeniens de tout Forient, de se pourvoir des saintes huiles ailleurs que
chez lui. Ceux de Turquie s en fournissent depuis long- terns a Jeru
salem, aupres du patriarche Armenien qui y reside, et qui est le chef de
tous les Chretiens Armeniens de I empire Ottoman." Voy. en Perse,
torn. i. p. 170, 4to.

1 Frequent mention is made in the Chinese writings of the tchikouei,
or tablet of honour, delivered to great officers on their appointment;
upon which their titles are set forth in gold letters, and which entitles
them to considerable privileges in travelling. That which is here spoken
of may be supposed to have been of nearly the same kind. In the vulgar
European dialect of Canton, it is termed the emperor s grand chop, a
word used to express " seal, mark, warrant, licence, or passport."

2 The name of the place where Khogatal was left is omitted in Marsden,
and in the French and some of the Italian texts.

Return of the Brothers 17

Armenia,, named Laiassus. 1 Departing from thence by sea,
they arrived at Acre 2 in the month of April, 1269, and there
learned, with extreme concern, that pope Clement the Fourth
was recently dead. 3 A legate whom he had appointed, named
M. Tebaldo de Vesconti di Piacenza, was at this time resident
in Acre, 4 and to him they gave an account of what they had in
command from the grand khan of Tartary. He advised them
by all means to wait the election of another pope, and when
that should take place, to proceed with the object of their
embassy. Approving of this counsel, they determined upon
employing the interval in a visit to their families in Venice.
They accordingly embarked at Acre in a ship bound to Negro-
pont, and from thence went on to Venice, where Nicolo Polo
found that his wife, whom he had left with child at his de
parture, was dead, after having been delivered of a son, who
received the name of Marco, and was now of the age of nineteen
years. 5 This is the Marco by whom the present work is com-

1 We have given the name Laiassus from the Latin text, instead of
Giazza, given in Marsden s text, which is an evident corruption. The
place meant is a port on the northern side of the gulf of Scandaroon, or
Issus, which in our modern maps and books of geography has the various
appellations of Lajazzo, Aiazzo, Aiasso, L Aias, and Layassa.

* Acre, properly Akka, the ancient Ptolemais, a maritime city of Pales
tine, was taken from the Saracens, in mo, by the Crusaders. In 1187
it fell into the hands of Saladin or Salah-eddin; and in 1191 it was
wrested from him by the Christian forces, under Philippe Auguste, king
of France, and Richard Coeur de Lion, king of England. In 1265, and
again in 1269 (about the period at which our travellers arrived there),
it was unsuccessfully attacked by Bibars, sultan of Egypt. In 1291 it
was finally conquered from the Christians, and in great part demolished,
by Khalil, another Egyptian sultan, of the dynasty of Mameluk Baha-
rites. In modern days, it suddenly arose from the obscurity in which
it had lain for five centuries, and once more became celebrated for the
determined and triumphant resistance there made, in 1798 and 1799, by
Jezzar Pasha, assisted by a small British squadron and the gallantry of
its distinguished commander, against the furious and sanguinary efforts
of the invader of Egypt.

3 Clement IV. died on the 29th of November, of the year 1268. The
event was consequently a recent one when our travellers arrived at
Acre ,in April, 1269. It may be observed that the date of their arrival
is differently stated in the MSS., some reading 1260, the Latin text having
1270, and others 1272. Some MSS. specify the 3oth of April as the day
of their arrival.

4 That Acre was the residence of a legate from the papal see about
this period is proved by other records.

6 The Basle, as well as the earlier Latin version, and the Italian
epitomes, state the age of Marco, who was to become the historian of the
family, to have been then only fifteen years. If this reading be correct,
as probably it is, the father, who arrived at Acre in 1269, and may be
presumed to have reached Venice in 1270, must have left home about
the year 1255. (See Note :J , on p. 10.) The age of nineteen seems to have
been assigned in order to make it consistent with the supposed departure
in 1250

i 8 Travels of Marco Polo

posed, and who will give therein a relation of all those matters
of which he has been an eye-witness.

3. In the meantime the election of a pope was retarded by
so many obstacles, that they remained two years in Venice,,
continually expecting its accomplishment; 1 when at length,
becoming apprehensive that the grand khan might be dis
pleased at their delay, or might suppose it was not their inten
tion to revisit his country, they judged it expedient to return
to Acre; and on this occasion they took with them young
Marco Polo. Under the sanction of the legate they made a
visit to Jerusalem, and there provided themselves with some
of the oil belonging to the lamp of the holy sepulchre, con
formably to the directions of the grand khan. As soon as
they were furnished with his letters addressed to that prince
bearing testimony to the fidelity with which they had en
deavoured to execute his commission, and explaining to him
that the pope of the Christian church had not as yet been
chosen, they proceeded to the before-mentioned port of
Laiassus. Scarcely however had they taken their departure,
when the legate received messengers from Italy, despatched
by the college of cardinals, announcing his own elevation to
the papal chair; and he thereupon assumed the name of
Gregory the Tenth. 2 Considering that he was now in a situa
tion that enabled him fully to satisfy the wishes of the Tartar
sovereign, he hastened to transmit letters to the king of
Armenia, 3 communicating to him the event of his election,

1 A vacancy in the papal see, for a period of nearly three years, occurred
on this occasion, in consequence of the cabals existing in the Sacred
College ; when, at length, it was determined to refer the choice of a pope
to six of the cardinals, who elected Tebaldo of Piacenza, on the first day
of September, 1271. In order to prevent the inconvenience and scandal
of such delays for the future, the institution of the Conclave (upon a
principle that resembles the impanelling of our English juries) was
established.

2 In the list of sovereign pontiffs we find him styled " B. Gregorius X.
Placentinus." His election, as has been mentioned, took place on the
ist of September, 1271. He was then acting as legate in Syria; but,
having early notice of the event, he was enabled to take his departure
from thence so soon as the i8th November following, and landed at
Brindisi, near Otranto, in January, 1272.

8 At this time Leon, or Livon II., reigned in the lesser Armenia, the
capital of which was Sis, and Ai as, or Ai azzo, its chief port. His father,
whom we call Haiton, and the Arabian writers Hatem, had acted a con
spicuous part in the late transactions, having accompanied Hulagu from
the court of Mangu-khan to Persia, and assisted in his wars with the
Mussulmans. In 1270 he had obtained the consent of Abaka the son of
Hulagu, then his liege sovereign, for transferring the crown of Armenia,
on account of his age and infirmities, to his son Leon. The principal
actions of his life are recorded by his namesake, relation and cotein-

Election of Pope Gregory X. 1 9

and requesting, in case the two ambassadors who were on their
way to the court of the grand khan should not have already
quitted his dominions,, that he would give directions for their
immediate return. These letters found them still in Armenia,
and with great alacrity they obeyed the summons to repair
once more to Acre; for which purpose the king furnished them
with an armed galley ; sending at the same time an ambassador
from himself, to offer his congratulations to the sovereign
pontiff.

Upon their arrival, his holiness received them in a distin
guished manner, and immediately despatched them with letters
papal, accompanied by two friars of the order of Preachers,
who happened to be on the spot; men of letters and of science,
as well as profound theologians. One of them was named Fra
Nicolo da Vicenza, and the other, Fra Guielmo da Tripoli.
To them he gave licence and authority to ordain priests, to
consecrate bishops, and to grant absolution as fully as he
could do in his own person. He also charged them with
valuable presents, and among these, several handsome vases
of crystal, to be delivered to the grand khan in his name, and
along with his benediction. Having taken leave, they again
steered their course to the port of Laiassus, 1 where they landed,
and from thence proceeded into the country of Armenia.
Here they received intelligence that the soldan of Babylonia,
named Bundokdari, had invaded the Armenian territory with
a numerous army, and had overrun and laid waste the country
to a great extent. 2 Terrified at these accounts, and appre-

porary, who, having long distinguished himself as a soldier, became an
ecclesiastic. His work was edited by Grynasus, at Basle and Paris, in
1532, under the title of " Haithonis Armeni de Tartaris liber," and again,
by Andreas Miiller, in 1671, under that of " Haithoni Armeni Historia
Orientalis: quae eadem et de Tartaris inscribitur." See also Abul-
Pharajii Hist. pp. 328 357; and De Guignes, Hist. Gen. liv. xv. pp.
125249.

1 As it may be presumed that our travellers commenced their journey
about the time of the sailing of Pope Gregory from Acre, the period is
fixed by authority that will scarcely admit dispute, to the end of the
year 1271, or beginning of 1272.

2 This soldan was Bibars, surnamed Bundokdari, Mameluk sultan of
Egypt (which is meant by Babylonia), who had conquered the greater
part of Syria, and had already (in or about 1266) invaded Armenia,
and plundered the towns of Sis and Ai s. In 1270 he made himself
master of Antioch, slew or made captives of all the Christian inhabitants,
and demolished its churches, the most magnificent and celebrated in the
East. It must have been about the beginning of the year 1272 that our
travellers entered Armenia; and, although it is not stated specifically
that any irruption by the soldan took place at that time, it is evident
that he had not ceased to harass the neighbouring country of Syria; and,

2o Travels of Marco Polo

hensive for their lives, the two friars determined not to proceed
further, and delivering over to the Venetians the letters and
presents entrusted to them by the pope, they placed themselves
under the protection of the master of the knights templars, 1
and with him returned directly to the coast. Nicolo, Maffeo,
and Marco, however, undismayed by perils or difficulties (to
which they had long been inured), passed the borders of
Armenia, and prosecuted their journey. After crossing
deserts of several days march, and passing many dangerous
defiles, they advanced so far, in a direction between north-east
and north, that at length they gained information of the grand
khan, who then had his residence in a large and magnificent
city named Cle-men-fu. 2 Their whole journey to this place
occupied no less than three years and a half; but, during the
winter months, their progress had been inconsiderable. 3 The
grand khan having notice of their approach whilst still remote,
md being aware how much they must have suffered from
fatigue, sent forward to meet them at the distance of forty
days journey, and gave orders to prepare in every place
through which they were to pass, whatever might be requisite
to their comfort. By these means, and through the blessing
of God, they were conveyed in safety to the royal court.

notwithstanding the formidable combination just mentioned, we find
him again, in 1276, invading the province of Rum, immediately border
ing on the lesser Armenia to the northward. The alarms must have
been perpetual, and these alone may have been sufficient to deter the two
theologians from proceeding with their more adventurous companions;
who did not, however, meet with the enemy.

1 It is well known that the knights of the hospital of St. John of Jeru
salem, and the knights of the Temple, were two great monastic military
orders that arose from the fanaticism of the crusades, and became the
most regular and effective support of the Christian cause in Asia." It is
not unlikely that a body of the latter may have been stationed in this
part of Armenia (which we should term the pashalic of Marash), for its
defence, and the ecclesiastics would naturally seek the protection of its
commander, who may have been the master, but was more probably
only a knight of the order.

2 The ordinary residence of Kublai at this period must have been Yen-
king (near the spot where Peking now stands), whilst he was employed
in laying the foundations of his new capital of Ta-tu, of which particular
mention will be made in the sequel. The operations of war, or the regu
lations of newly-conquered provinces, might, however, occasion his visit
ing other cities; and our travellers may have found him in the western
part of his dominions. " II etablit sa cour d abord," says Du Halde,
" a Tai-yuen-fou, capitale de la province de Chan-si, et ensuite il la
transporta a Peking."- -Descript, de la Chine, torn. i. p. 496.

3 When the Teshu Lama of Tibet visited (in 1779-80) the late emperor
of China, at Peking, his journey (although from what we consider a
neighbouring country, and which has since been garrisoned by Chinese
troops) occupied ten months, during four of which he was detained at
one place by the snow,

The Brothers Reach China 21

4. Upon their arrival they were honourably and graciously
received by the grand khan, in a full assembly of his principal
officers. When they drew nigh to his person, they paid their
respects by prostrating themselves on the floor. He imme
diately commanded them to rise, and to relate to him the
circumstances of their travels, with all that had taken place
in their negotiation with his holiness the pope. To their
narrative, which they gave in the regular order of events, and
delivered in perspicuous language, he listened with attentive
silence. The letters and the presents from pope Gregory
were then laid before him, and, upon hearing the former read,
he bestowed much commendation on the fidelity, the zeal,
and the diligence of his ambassadors ; and receiving with due
reverence the oil from the holy sepulchre, he gave directions
that it should be preserved with religious care. Upon his
observing Marco Polo, and inquiring who he was, Nicolo made
answer, This is your servant, and my son; upon which the
grand khan replied, " He is welcome, and it pleases me much,"
and he caused him to be enrolled amongst his attendants of
honour. And on account of their return he made a great
feast and rejoicing; and as long as the said brothers and
Marco remained in the court of the grand khan, they were
honoured even above his own courtiers. Marco was held in
high estimation and respect by all belonging to the court. He
learnt in a short time and adopted the manners of the Tartars,
and acquired a proficiency in four different languages, which
he became qualified to read and write. 1 Finding him thus
accomplished, his master was desirous of putting his talents for
business to the proof, and sent him on an important concern of
state to a city named Karazan, 2 situated at the distance of six

1 Perhaps the Moghul or Mungal, Ighor, Marichu, and Chinese. The
last will be thought the least probable; but no inference should be
drawn from his orthography of Chinese names in European characters,
and particularly in the corrupted state of the text. The Latin text says
that Marco learnt " the iartar and four other languages; " the French
text says, " their language and four different characters " of writing.

2 Having here the name merely, without any circumstance but that of
its remoteness from the capital of China, we must presume it to be in
tended for a city of Khorasan; to which there is no objection but the
probability of his having passed through that province when he first
visited Tartary, and that it is not here spoken of as a place with which
he had been previously acquainted. It was then (together with Persia)
under the dominion of the second son of Hulagu, who succeeded his
brother Abaka, and took the name of Ahmed Khan, upon his embracing
the Mahometan religion. It would, perhaps, be taking a liberty with
the orthography to suppose that the name might be intended for Khor-
asmia, the Kharism of modern geographers.

22 Travels of Marco Polo

months journey from the imperial residence; on which occa
sion he conducted himself with so much wisdom and prudence
in the management of the affairs entrusted to him, that his
services became highly acceptable. On his part, perceiving
that the grand khan took a pleasure in hearing accounts of
whatever was new to him respecting the customs and manners
of people, and the peculiar circumstances of distant countries,
he endeavoured, wherever he went, to obtain correct informa
tion on these subjects, and made notes of all he saw and heard,
in order to gratify the curiosity of his master. In short,
during seventeen years : that he continued in his service, he
rendered himself so useful, that he was employed on confi
dential missions to every part of the empire and its depen
dencies; and sometimes also he travelled on his own private
account, but always with the consent, and sanctioned by the
authority, of the grand khan. Under such circumstances it
was that Marco Polo had the opportunity of acquiring a know
ledge, either by his own observation, or what he collected from
others, of so many things, until his time unknown, respecting
the eastern parts of the world, and which he diligently and
regularly committed to writing, as in the sequel will appear.
And by this means he obtained so much honour, that he pro
voked the jealousy of the other officers of the court.

5. Our Venetians having now resided many years at the
imperial court, and in that time having realized considerable
wealth, in jewels of value and in gold, felt a strong desire to
revisit their native country, and, however honoured and
caressed by the sovereign, this sentiment was ever predomi
nant in their minds. It became the more decidedly their
object, when they reflected on the very advanced age of the
grand khan, whose death, if it should happen previously to
their departure, might deprive them of that public assistance
by which alone they could expect to surmount the innumerable
difficulties of so long a journey, and reach their homes in

1 In Rarnusio s text the period is said to be ventisei annt, " twenty-six
years," and Purchas endeavours to explain in what sense this number
should be understood ; but I prefer, in this instance, the reading of the
Latin version, which has " xvii annos," as more consistent with the fact.
It is certain that the family did not leave Acre, on their return to China,
before the end of 1271; and as there is reason to believe that they did
not reach the emperor s court before 1273 or 1274, nor remain there
beyond 1291, it follows that the period of Marco s service could not have
exceeded seventeen years by more than a few months. Twenty-six
years include the whole of the period elapsed since the first visit of his
father and uncle in 1264 or 1265.

Queen Bolgana 23

safety; which on the contrary, in his lifetime, and through his
favour, they might reasonably hope to accomplish. Nicolo
Polo accordingly took an opportunity one day, when he
observed him to be more than usually cheerful, of throwing
himself at his feet, and soliciting on behalf of himself and his
family to be indulged with his majesty s gracious permission
for their departure. But far from showing himself disposed
to comply with the request, he appeared hurt at the applica
tion, and asked what motive they could have for wishing to
expose themselves to all the inconveniences and hazards of a
journey in which they might probably lose their lives. If gain,
he said, was their object, he was ready to give them the double
of whatever they possessed, and to gratify them with honours
to the extent of their desires; but that, from the regard he
bore to them, he must positively refuse their petition.

It happened, about this period, that a queen named Bolgana, 1
the wife of Arghun, 2 sovereign of India, died, and as her last
request (which she likewise left in a testamentary writing)
conjured her husband that no one might succeed to her place on
his throne and in his affections, who was not a descendant of her
own family, now settled under the dominion of the grand khan, 3

1 Although we do not find in the histories of this period that have
come to our hands, any mention of the consort of Arghun-khan, yet the
name that is here written Bolgana, and in the Latin of the Basle edition,
as well as that of the British Museum manuscript, Balgana occurs, with
little difference of orthography, amongst the females of the family. The
daughter of Jagata i, son of Jengiz-khan and uncle of Hulagu, was named
Bolghan-khatun, as appears from the " Rouzat alsafa " of Mirkhond.
The Latin and French texts, and the Italian text in Boni s edition, call
the queen Bolgara.

2 Arghun-khan, the son of Abaka-khan, and grandson of Hulagu-il-
khan, succeeded his uncle Ahmed-khan Nikodar on the throne of Persia,
Khorasan, and other neighbouring countries, in 1284; and his first act,
as we are informed by De Guignes (Liv. xvii. p. 265) was to send to the
emperor Kublai , as the head of the family and his liege sovereign, to
demand the investiture of his estates. The death of his queen, here
spoken of, must, from the circumstances mentioned in the sequel, have
taken place about the year 1287, and he himself died in 1291. The
name in all the versions of the work is uniformly written Argon, which
approaches extremely near to the Persian orthography.

3 The grand khan, at whose court the family of this queen is said to
have resided in Kataia, was the grand- uncle of Arghun, her husband,
and the queen herself was probably of the same royal Moghul family,
from the common stock of Jengiz-khan. Her anxiety therefore was,
that her husband should not degrade himself and her memory, by con
tracting a marriage with any person of less noble lineage than their own.
Viewing the circumstances therefore in their proper light, it will be found
that what might at first be thought a romantic story, of a king of India
sending an embassy to an emperor of China, for the purpose of obtaining
a wife, resolves itself into the simple and natural transaction, of one of
the younger members of a great family applying to the head of the house

24 Travels of Marco Polo

in the country of Kathay. 1 Desirous of complying with
this solemn entreaty, Arghun deputed three of his nobles,
discreet men, whose names were Ulatai, Apusca, and Goza, 2
attended by a numerous retinue, as his ambassadors to the
grand khan, with a request that he might receive at his hands
a maiden to wife, from among the relatives of his deceased
queen. The application was taken in good part, and under
the directions of his majesty, choice was made of a damsel
aged seventeen, extremely handsome and accomplished, whose
name was Kogatin, 3 and of whom the ambassadors, upon her
being shown to them, highly approved. When everything
was arranged for their departure, and a numerous suite of
attendants appointed, to do honour to the future consort of
king Arghun, they received from the grand khan a gracious
dismissal, and set out on their return by the way they came.
Having travelled for eight months, their further progress was

to be allowed to strengthen the connexion, by marrying from amongst
those who were probably his cousins in the second degree; for we may
presume that if this female had not been one of Kublai s own immediate
race, (a granddaughter, perhaps, as he was then advanced in years,)
there would not have existed a necessity for making so formal a demand.
In regard to the distance between Persia and China, which might be con
sidered an objection to the probability of the fact, it is well known that
amongst all the branches of this Moghul family, however remote from
each other, a continual intercourse had, up to that period, been main
tained, and Arghun himself had applied for and received his investiture
from the same monarch. In the event, however, it proved that the
difficulties attending the returning journey, over land, had become
insuperable.

1 The situation of Khata i, or Kataia, (or as it was usually called by the
medieval writers, Cathay,) has been a subject of much discussion amongst
the learned; but it cannot, I think, be doubted by those who consult
the eastern geographers and historians rather than the Greek, that they
apply the name to the northern provinces of what we call China, which
were conquered by Jengiz-khan, and his son, Okta i, not from a Chinese
government, but from a race of eastern Tartars, called Niu-che and Kin,
by whom they had been subdued about one hundred and twenty years
before. Whether they confine it strictly to these provinces, or include
some of the adjoining parts of Tartary, without-side the wall, it is not
easy to determine, as their accounts of these regions are far from being
precise; but the former I should judge to be the case.

8 These names vary considerably in the different versions and editions,
where they appear in the forms of Ulatai and Gulatay, Apusca, Apusta,
and Ribusca, Goza, and Coyla; all of them, probably, much disfigured
by transcribing from indistinct manuscripts. The Latin text calls them
Oulata, Alpusca, and Cor. They are not, however, of any historical
importance.

3 One of the wives of Hulagu, and mother of Ahmed-khan Nikodar
(the uncle of Arghun), was named Kutai-khatun, of which Kogatin,
(otherwise written Gogatim and Koganyn) may perhaps be a corruption.
The word khatun, which signifies "lady," is very frecjuently annexed
to, or forms parts of proper names, borne by Persian and Tartar women
of rank.

Return of the Brothers 25

obstructed and the roads shut up against them, by fresh wars
that had broken out amongst the Tartar princes. 1 Much
against their inclinations, therefore, they were constrained to
adopt the measure of returning to the court of the grand khan,
to whom they stated the interruption they had met with.

About the time of their reappearance, Marco Polo happened
to arrive from a voyage he had made, with a few vessels under
his orders, to some parts of the East Indies, 2 and reported to
the grand khan the intelligence he brought respecting the
countries he had visited, with the circumstances of his own
navigation, which, he said, was performed in those seas with
the utmost safety. This latter observation having reached
the ears of the three ambassadors, who were extremely anxious
to return to their own country, from whence they had now
been absent three years, they presently sought a conference
with our Venetians, whom they found equally desirous of
revisiting their home; and it was settled between them that
the former, accompanied by their young queen, should obtain
an audience of the grand khan, and represent to him with what
convenience and security they might effect their return by sea,
to the dominions of their master; whilst the voyage would be
attended with less expense than the journey by land, 3 and be
performed in a shorter time; according to the experience of
Marco Polo, who had lately sailed in those parts. Should his
majesty incline to give his consent to their adopting that mode
of conveyance, they were then to urge him to suffer the three
Europeans, as being persons well skilled in the practice of
navigation, to accompany them until they should reach the

1 These wars must have taken place about the year 1289, and pro
bably in the country of Mawara lnahr, or Transoxiana, amongst the
descendants of Jagatai or Zagatai, whose history is particularly obscure;
but there is reason to believe that they (or any of the Moghul princes)
were seldom in a state of tranquillity. Troubles were also excited,
nearer to China, by a younger brother of Kubla i, who attempted to dis
pute with him the right to the empire.

2 What are here termed the East Indies must not be understood of the
continent of India, but of some of the islands in the eastern archipelago,
perhaps the Philippines, or possibly the coast of Tsiampa, or Champa,
which, in another part of the work, our author speaks of having visited.
The voyage here mentioned was subsequent to the grand and disastrous
expedition which the active genuis of Kublai led him to fit out against
the kingdom of Japan. It should be observed that the Latin and French
texts, and the Italian published by Boni, say nothing of the ships, but
merely state that he was returning from an embassy to India.

3 The suggestion of this economical motive may seem extraordinary,
but attachment to money was one of the weak parts of Kublai s char
acter, and the practices he adopted, or connived at, for raising it. have
been the subject of much reprehension.

26 Travels of Marco Polo

territory of king Arghun. The grand khan upon receiving
this application showed by his countenance that it was exceed
ingly displeasing to him, averse as he was to parting with the
Venetians. Feeling nevertheless that he could not with pro
priety do otherwise than consent, he yielded to their entreaty.
Had it not been that he found himself constrained by the im
portance and urgency of this peculiar case, they would never
otherwise have obtained permission to withdraw themselves
from his service. He sent for them, however, and addressed
them with much kindness and condescension, assuring them of
his regard, and requiring from them a promise that when they
should have resided some time in Europe and with their own
family, they would return to him once more. With this object
in view he caused them to be furnished with the golden tablet
(or royal chop), which contained his order for their having free
and safe conduct through every part of his dominions, with
the needful supplies for themselves and their attendants. He
likewise gave them authority to act in the capacity of his
ambassadors to the pope, the kings of France and Spain, and
the other Christian princes. 1

At the same time preparations were made for the equipment
of fourteen ships, each having four masts, and capable of being
navigated with nine sails, 2 the construction and rigging of
which would admit of ample description; but, to avoid pro
lixity, it is for the present omitted. Among these vessels there
were at least four or five that had crews of two hundred and
fifty or two hundred and sixty men. On them were embarked
the ambassadors, having the queen under their protection,

1 In the Latin version it is said that he appointed ambassadors of his
own to these monarchs to accompany the expedition; but as no allusion
is afterwards made to such personages, although an obvious occasion
(that of the mortality) presents itself, the Italian reading is considered
as preferable.

2 For the modern practice, in the northern part of China, and parti
cularly on the Pe-ho, of rigging vessels intended to be employed in foreign
voyages, with four masts, we have the authority of Barrow, who says:
" It is impossible not to consider the notices given by this early traveller
(Marco Polo) as curious, interesting, and valuable; and as far as they
regard the empire of China, they bear internal evidence of their being
generally correct. He sailed from China in a fleet consisting of fourteen
ships, each carrying four masts, and having their holds partitioned into
separate chambers. . . . We observed many hundreds of a larger de
scription, that are employed in foreign voyages, all carrying four masts."

Travels in China, p. 45. In the Latin version the words are, " quarum

quaslibet habebat quatuor malos, et multas ex illis ibant cum duodecim

veils," " of which each had four masts, and many of them went with

twelve sails." It is well known that now Chinese vessels do not carry
any kind of topsail.

Return of the Brothers 27

together with Nicolo, Maffeo, and Marco Polo, when they had
first taken their leave of the grand khan, who presented them
with many rubies and other handsome jewels of great value.
He also gave directions that the ships should be furnished with
stores and provisions for two years. 1

6. After a navigation of about three months, they arrived
at an island which lay in a southerly direction, named Java, 2
where they saw various objects worthy of attention, of which
notice shall be taken in the sequel of the work. Taking their
departure from thence, they employed eighteen months in the
Indian seas before they were enabled to reach the place of their
destination in the territory of king Arghun; 3 and during this
part of their voyage also they had an opportunity of observing
many things, which shall, in like manner, be related hereafter.
But here it may be proper to mention, that between the day of
their sailing and that of their arrival, they lost by deaths, of
the crews of the vessels and others who were embarked, about
six hundred persons ; and of the three ambassadors, only one,
whose name was Goza, survived the voyage; whilst of all the
ladies and female attendants one only died. 4

Upon landing they were informed that king Arghun had
died some time before, 5 and that the government of the
country was then administered, on behalf of his son, who was
still a youth, by a person of the name of Ki-akato. 6 From

1 The sailing of this remarkable expedition from the Pe-ho, or river of
Peking, we may infer, from circumstances mentioned in different parts
of the work, to have taken place about the beginning of 1291, three
years before the death of the emperor Kubla i, and four years previous
to the arrival of the Polo family at Venice, in 1295.

2 Some details of this part of the voyage are given in book iii. chap,
x., where the island here called Java, is termed Java minor, and is evi
dently intended for Sumatra. It will appear that they wanted the
change of the monsoon in a northern port of that island, near the western
entrance of the straits of Malacca.

3 The place where the expedition ultimately arrived is not directly
mentioned in any part of the work; but there are strong grounds for
inferring it to have been the celebrated port of Ormuz. With respect
to the prince named Arghun-khan, see Note 2 , on p. 23.

4 This mortality is no greater than might be expected in vessels
crowded with men unaccustomed to voyages of such duration, and who
had passed several months at an anchorage in the straits of Malacca;
and although it should have amounted to one- third of their whole
number, the proportion would not have exceeded what was suffered by
Lord Anson and other navigators of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.

6 Arghun-khan, according to the authorities followed by De Guignes,
died in the third month of the year 690 of the hejrah, answering to Maxell
in the year of our Lord 1291.

The person here named Ki-akato, or Chiacato in the. Italian ortho
graphy, and described as the ruler of the country in the name of the late

2 8 Travels of Marco Polo

him they desired to receive instructions as to the manner in
which they were to dispose of the princess, whom, by the
orders of the late king, they had conducted thither. His
answer was, that they ought to present the lady to Kasan, 1
the son of Arghun, who was then at a place on the borders of
Persia, which has its denomination from the Arbor secco, 2
where an army of sixty thousand men was assembled for the
purpose of guarding certain passes against the irruption of
the enemy. 3 This they proceeded to carry into execution,
and having effected it, they returned to the residence of Ki-
akato, because the road they were afterwards to take lay in
that direction. 4 Here, however, they reposed themselves for

king s son, was Kai-khatu, the second son of Abaka-khan, and conse
quently the brother of Arghun, upon whose death he is said to have
seized the throne (although perhaps only as regent or protector), to the
prejudice of his nephew, then a minor.

1 The prince whose name is here written Kasan, or Casan, and by De
Guignes Cazan, was Chazan-khan, the eldest son of Arghun. He did not
succeed to the throne of Persia until the end of the year 1295, nearly
five years after the death of his father, who had sent him to reside in
Khorasan, under the tutelage of an atabeg, or governor, named Nu-
roz, by whose persuasion he afterwards embraced the Mussulman faith,
and took the name of Mahmud. It does not appear that he was molested
in that province by his uncle Kai-khatu, and this recommendation, that
the princess should be conveyed to him as the representative of his
father, serves to show that they were not upon terms of actual hostility.
It is further proved by the circumstance, that when, upon the murder
of Kai-khatu, the government fell into the hands of Baidu (a grandson
of Hulagu in a different line), and Ghazan marched with an army to
Rey (Rages) to assert his hereditary claims, the first demand he made
was, that the assassins of his uncle should be delivered up to him. After
a doubtful struggle maintained during a period of eight months, the
defection of his principal officers led to the destruction of the usurper,
and Ghazan ascended the throne of Persia, about two years subsequently
to the arrival of the princess, of whom nothing further is recorded.

2 More circumstantial mention is made of this district, and of the tree
from whence it is said to derive its appellation, in chap. xx. of this book.

8 This is the important pass known to the ancients by the appellation
of Portae Caspiae or Caspian Straits (to be distinguished from those of
Derbend, as well as of Rudbar), and termed by Eastern geographers
the Straits of Khowar, or Khawr, from a Persian word, signifying a
valley between two mountains, or from a small town near the eastern
entrance which bears the same name. " This remarkable chasm," says
Rennell, " is now called the strait or passage of Khowar (Chora of the
ancients), from a town or district in the neighbourhood. It is situated
at the termination of the great Salt Desert, almost due north from
Ispahan, and about fifty miles to the eastward of the ruins of Rey (or
Rages). Alexander passed through it in his way from Rages towards
Aria and Bactria. Delia Valle and Herbert amongst the moderns, and
Pliny amongst the ancients, have described it particularly. It is eight
miles through, and generally forty yards in breadth." Geographical
System of Herodotus examined and explained, p. 174, note.

4 From the preceding part of the narrative we might be led to suppose
the residence of Kai-khatu to have been in one of the southern provinces

The Brothers in Persia 29

the space of nine months. 1 When they took their leave he
furnished them with four golden tablets, each of them a cubit
in length, five inches wide, and weighing three or four marks of
gold. 2 Their inscription began with invoking the blessing of
the Almighty upon the grand khan, 3 that his name might be
held in reverence for many years, and denouncing the punish
ment of death and confiscation of goods to all who should
refuse obedience to the mandate. It then proceeded to direct
that the three ambassadors, as his representatives, should be
treated throughout his dominions with due honour, that their
expenses should be defrayed, and that they should be pro
vided with the necessary escorts. All this was fully complied
with, and from many places they were protected by bodies of
two hundred horse; nor could this have been dispensed with
as the government of Ki-akato was unpopular, and the people
were disposed to commit insults and proceed to outrages,
which they would not have dared to attempt under the rule
of their proper sovereign. 4 In the course of their journey our

of Persia; but here, on the contrary, we find, that, conformably with
the histories of the times, it lay in the route between the place where
Ghazan was encamped, on the eastern side of the Caspian straits, and
the country of Armenia, towards which our travellers were advancing.
By D Herbelot, De Guignes, and others, we are accordingly told that
the capital of the princes of this dynasty was the city of Tauris or Tabriz,
in Aderbijan, but that they frequently resided (especially in summer) at
Hamadan, in Aljebal, in order to be nearer to the Syrian frontier.

1 From what has been said in the preceding note, we may presume
this place to have been Tabriz.

2 The mark being eight ounces, the tablets must have been unneces
sarily expensive and inconveniently ponderous. The other versions do
not specify either weight or size, and some state them to be only two
additional tablets.

3 This shows that the sovereignty of the head of the family was still
acknowledged by these branches, and Kai-khatu might have particular
motives for courting its sanction. Ghazan is said to have been the first
who renounced this slight species of vassalage, and probably did not
send an ambassador to China to demand the investiture.

4 In the conduct here described we have a proof of the general doubt
entertained respecting his right to the throne, although the Moghul
chiefs affected to consider it as dependent upon their election. The
historians all agree in reprobating his habits as debauched and infamous,
and these chiefs, indignant at being governed by a prince so corrupt,

equally hated by his subjects and despised by foreigners," resolved to
remove him, and made an offer of the crown, not to Ghazan, whom
they might think still too young, or too feeble in bodily frame, for their
purpose, but to Baidu, a grandson of Hulagu, and cousin of the late
king, who was then governor of Baghdad. A battle was fought, in
which Kai-khatu, personally brave, found himself deserted by a principal
officer who commanded a wing of his army, was defeated, and subse
quently strangled. For a circumstantial detail of these transactions on
the authority of Khondernir, see the Bibliptheque Orientale, under the
article Baidu. See also the article Gangiatu, " que 1 on trouve aussi

30 Travels of Marco Polo

travellers received intelligence of the grand khan (Kublai)
having departed this life ; l which entirely put an end to all
prospect of their revisiting those regions. Pursuing, therefore,
their intended route, they at length reached the city of Trebi-
zond, from whence they proceeded to Constantinople, then to
Negropont, 2 and finally to Venice, at which place, in the en
joyment of health and abundant riches, they safely arrived in
the year 1295. On this occasion they offered up their thanks
to God, who had now been pleased to relieve them from such
great fatigues, after having preserved them from innumerable
perils. The foregoing narrative may be considered as a pre
liminary chapter, the object of which is to make the reader
acquainted with the opportunities Marco Polo had of acquiring
a knowledge of the things he describes, during a residence of so
many years in the eastern parts of the world

CHAPTER II

OF ARMENIA MINOR OF THE PORT OF LAIASSUS AND OF THE

BOUNDARIES OF THE PROVINCE.

IN commencing the description of the countries which Marco
Polo visited in Asia, and of things worthy of notice which he

nomme Caictu, et Caicatu." " Khondemir remarque que le veritable nom
de ce prince stoit Aicatu, ou Gaicatu." We should learn from hence to
hesitate before we condemn the orthography of our author, whose mode of
writing this uncouth name differs so little, if at all, from some of these
high authorities. It is a circumstance extremely remarkable, that one of
the principal motives assigned for the revolt of the Moghul chiefs against
this prince, was his having attempted to establish in his dominions a
system of paper-money, like that of China. De Guignes, Hist, des Huns,

* Kublai , whose name the Chinese pronounce Hupili or Hupile, whilst
in their annals they bestow on him that of Chi-tsu, was proclaimed grand
khan in the year 1260, became emperor of China upon the destruction of
the dynasty of the Song, who reigned ill Manji or the provinces south
of the great river Kiang, in 1280, and died in the beginning of 1294, at
the age of eighty years. It is not surprising that the news of an event
so important to all the tribes of Moghuls or Tartars should have found
its way to the court of Persia, and consequently to our travellers, with
extraordinary expedition.

2 Their most direct route from Tabriz would have lain through Bedl
in Kurdistan to Aleppo, but at this time the sultans of Egypt, with whom
the kings of Persia were continually at war, had possession of all the
seaports of Syria, and would pay little respect to their passports. By
the way of Georgia to Trebisond, on the Euxine, their land-journey was
shorter and more secure, and when at that place they were under the
protection of the Christian prince, whose family reigned in the small
independent kingdom of Trebisond, from 1204 to 1462.

Account of Armenia 3 i

observed therein, it is proper to mention that we are to dis
tinguish two Armenias, the Lesser and the Greater. 1 The
king of the Lesser Armenia dwells in a city called Sebastoz, 2
and rules his dominions with strict regard to justice. The
towns, fortified places, and castles are numerous. There is
abundance of all necessaries of life, as well as of those things
which contribute to its comfort. Game^Jpoth of beasts and
birds . is in plenty. It must be said. howeveivtEa/ttli^aif oTthe

"*O^ v _ f * * * *

country is not remarkably healthy. In former times its gentry
were esteemed expert and brave soldiers; but at the present
day they are great drinkers, pusillanimous, and worthless.
On the sea-coast there is a city named Laiassus, 3 a place of
considerable traffic. Its port is frequented by merchants from
Venice, Genoa, and many other places, who trade in spiceries
and drugs of different sorts, manufactures of silk and of wool, Nk
and other rich commodities. Those persons who design to

1 This distinction of the Armenias into the Greater and the Lesser, is
conformable to what we find in Ptolemy and the geographers of the
middle ages; although other divisions have taken place since that
part of Asia has been subject to the Ottoman empire. The Lesser
Armenia is defined by Biisching as comprehending that part of Cap-
padocia and Cilicia which lies along the western side of the Create!
Armenia, and also on the western side of the Euphrates. That in the
days of Haiton it extended south of Taurus, and included Cilicia (cam-
pestris), which was not the case in more ancient times, we have the
unexceptionable authority of that historian.

2 As it appears from the passage quoted in the preceding note, as well
as from other authorities, that Sis was the capital of the Lesser Armenia
during the reigns of the Leons and Haitons, we are led to suppose the
Sebastoz here mentioned to have been the ancient name of that city, or
of one that stood on the same site. It is obvious, indeed, from the geo
graphy of Ptolemy, that there were many places in Asia Minor that bore
the names of Sebastia, Sebaste, and Sebastopolis (besides one in Syria)
and in his enumeration of the towns of Cilicia, we find a Sebaste, to which]
in the Latin translation, published at Venice in 1562, the epithet of

augusta is annexed. Upon the foundations of this, Leon I. (from
whom the country is called by the Arabians, Belan Leon, as well as Belad
Sis), may have built the modern city, and the Greek name may have been
still prevalent. We are told, however, that the city which preceded Sis
as the capital of Armenia Minor, was named Messis, Massis, or Massissa
the ancient Mopsuestia, and it must be confessed that if authority was
not in opposition to conjecture, the sound of these names might lead us
to suppose that the modern name was only an abbreviation of Mes-sis
and Sebastoz a substitution for Mopsueste. In a subsequent part of
the chapter the city of Sevasta or Sevaste, the modern Siwas or Sivas is
spoken of under circumstances that appear to distinguish it entirely from
the Armenian capital; having been recently conquered by the Moghuls
from the Seljuk princes.

1 Lajazzo, or Aias, is situated in a low, morassy country, formed by
the alluvion of the two rivers Sihon and Jihon (of Cilicia) and fas
observed to me by Major Rennell) at the present mouth of the latter
Its trade has been transferred to Alexanclretta or Scancleroon oil the
opposite or Syrian side of the gulf.

32. Travels of Marco Polo

travel into the interior of the Levant/ usually proceed in the
first instance to this port of Laiassus. The boundaries of the
Lesser Armenia are, on the south, the Land of Promise, now
occupied by the Saracens; 2 on the north, Karamania, in
habited by Turkomans; towards the north-east lie the cities
of Kaisariah, Sevasta, 3 and many others subject to the Tar
tars; and on the western side it is bounded by the sea, which
extends to the shores of Christendom.

CHAPTER III

OF THE PROVINCE CALLED TURKOMANIA, WHERE ARE THE
CITIES OF KOGNI, KAISARIAH, AND SEVASTA, AND OF ITS
COMMERCE.

THE inhabitants of Turkomania 4 may be distinguished into
three classes. The Turkomans, who reverence Mahomet and
follow his law, are a rude people, and dull of intellect. They

1 Levant is a translation of the word Anatolia or Anadoli, from the
Greek avaroXij " ortus, oriens," signifying the country that lies eastward
from Greece. As the name of a region therefore it should be equivalent
to Natolia, in its more extensive acceptation; and it is evident that our
author employs it to denote Asia Minor. Smyrna is at present estee ned
the principal port in the Levant, and the term seems to be now confined
to the sea-coast, and to mercantile usage.

2 For the Land of Promise, or Palestine, which extends no further to the
north than Tyre, is here to be understood Syria, or that part of itcalled
Coelo-Syria, which borders on Cilicia or the southern part of Armenia
Minor. As the more general denomination of Syria includes Palestine,
and the latter name was, in the time of the Crusades, more familiar to
Europeans than the former, it is not surprising that they should some
times be confounded. The Saracens here spoken of were the subjects
of the Mameluk sultans or soldans of Egypt, who recoverd from the
Christian powers in Syria, what the princes of the family of Saladin, or of
the Ayubite dynasty, had lost. In other parts of the work the term is
employed indiscriminately with that of Mahometan.

3 The Turkomans of Karamania were a race of Tartars settled in Asia
Minor, under the government of the Seljuk princes, of whom an account
will be found in the following note. Kaisariah or Cassarea, and Sevasta or
Sebaste, the Sebastopolis Cappadocias of Ptolemy and Siwas or Sivas of
the present day, were cities belonging to the same dynasty, that had
been conquered by the. Moghuls in the year 1242.

4 By Turkomania we are to understand, generally, the possessions of
the great Seljuk dynasty in Asia Minor, extending from Cilicia and
Painphylia, in the south, to the shores of the Euxine sea, and from
Pisidia and Mysia, in the west, to the borders of Armenia Minor; includ
ing the greater part of Phrygia arid Cappadocia, together with Pontus,
and particularly the modern provinces of Karamania and Rumiyah, or

Province of Turkoman ia 33

dwell amongst the mountains and in places difficult of access,
where their object is to find good pasture for their cattle,, as
they live entirely upon animal food. There is here an excel
lent breed of horses which has the appellation of Turki, and
fine mules which are sold at high prices. 1 The other classes
are Greeks and Armenians, who reside in the cities and forti
fied places, and gain their living by commerce and manu
facture. The best and handsomest carpets in the world are
wrought here, and also silks of crimson and other rich colours. 2
Amongst its cities are those of Kogni, Kaisariah, and Sevasta,
in which last Saint Blaise obtained the glorious crown of
martyrdom. 3 They are all subject to the great khan, emperor
of the Oriental Tartars, who appoints governors to them. 4
We shall now speak of the Greater Armenia.

the country of Rum. Of the former of these, the capital was Iconium,
corrupted by the oriental writers to Kuniyah, and by those of the
Crusades to Kogni; of the latter, Sebaste or Sebastopolis, corrupted
to Siwas or Sivas. The chief from whom the dynasty of Seljuks derived
its appellation, was by birth a Turkoman, of Turkistan, on the north
eastern side of the river Sihon or Jaxartes, but in the service of a prince
of Khozar, on the Wolga, from which he fled and pursued his fortune in
Transoxiana; as did some of his family in Khorasan. Having acquired
great celebrity, they were at length enabled, by the means of numerous
tribes of Turkomans who joined their standard, to establish a sovereignty,
or, in point of extent, an empire, the principal seat of which was in Persia.
Another branch, about the year 1080, wrested the fine provinces of Asia
Minor from the Greek emperors, and formed the kingdom of which we
are now speaking. Through its territory the Christian princes repeatedly
forced their way in their progress to the Holy Land, and it is computed
by historians that not fewer than six hundred thousand men perished in
this preliminary warfare. At length the power of the Seljuks yielded to
the overwhelming influence of the house of Jengiz-khan, and in our
author s time they were reduced to insignificance; but from their ruins
sprang the empire of the Ottomans, the founder of which had been in the
service of one of the last sultans of Iconium.

1 The pastoral habits of the Turkoman Tartars are preserved to this
day, even in Asia Minor, and the distinction of their tribes subsists also.
The Turki breed of horses is esteemed throughout the East, for spirit
and hardiness.

2 " Et ibi fiunt soriani et tapeti pulchriores de mundo et pulchrioris
coloris," are the words of the Latin text.

Blaise, bishop of Sebasta, in Cappadocia, in the second and third
centuries," says the Biographical Dictionary, " suffered death under
Diocletian, by decapitation, after being whipped and having his flesh
torn with iron combs. ... It is difficult to say how the invention (of
wool combing) came to be attributed to him; but it had probably no
better origin than the circumstance of his being tortured with the instru
ments used in the combing of wool. *

4 It is the family of Hulagu, and the tribes who followed his standard
from the north, whom our author always designates by the name of
Oriental Tartars, to distinguish them from the descendants of Batu, who
settled near the Wolga, on the north-western side of the Caspian, and
extended their conquests towards Europe; whilst the former entered
Persia from the Eastern quarter, by the way of Transoxiana and Khorasan.

B

34 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER IV

OF ARMENIA MAJOR, IN WHICH ARE THE CITIES OF ARZTNGAN,
ARGIRON, AND DARZIZ OF THE CASTLE OF PAIPURTH OF
THE MOUNTAIN WHERE THE ARK OF NOAH RESTED OF THE
BOUNDARIES OF THE PROVINCE AND OF A REMARKABLE
FOUNTAIN OF OIL.

ARMENIA Major is an extensive province, at the entrance of
which is a city named Arzingan, 1 where there is a manufacture
of very fine cotton cloth called bombazines, 2 as well as of
many other curious fabrics, which it would be tedious to
enumerate. It possesses the handsomest and most excellent
baths of warm water, issuing from the earth, that are any
where to be found. 3 Its inhabitants are for the most part

_-^ wta ^ ^ ^ *H MM ^

1 Arzengan, or, as written by the Arabians, who have not the Persian
g, Arzenjan, is a city near the frontier of Rumiyah, but just within the
limits of Armenia Major. " Cette ville," says D Herbelot, " appartient
plutot TArmenie, et fut prise par les Mogols ou Tar tares 1 an 640 de
I Hegire, de J. C. 1242, apres la defaite de Kaikhosrou, fils d Aladin le
Selgiucide, aussi bien que les villes de Sebaste et de C6saree." By an
oriental geographer it is said to be, " Oppidum celeberrimum, elegans,
amcenum, copiosum bonis rebus, incolisque: pertinens ad Armeniam:
inter Rumaeas provincias et Chalatam situm, haud procul Arzerroumo:
esseque incolas ejus maixmam partem Armenios." Alberti Schultens
Index Geographicus in Vitam Saladini. Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian,
who travelled into Persia, in the fifteenth century, speaks of Arsengan
as a place that had formerly been of consequence, but was then mostly
in ruins.

2 The name of a species of cloth which I have here translated " bom
bazine," is in the Italian of Ramusio, " bochassini di bambagio," and in
the Latin versions " buchiranus, buchyramis, and bucaramus." Its
substance or texture is not clearly explained in our dictionaries. That
of Cotgrave, printed in 1611, defines " boccasin," to be " a kind of fine
buckeram, that hath a resemblance of taffata, and is much used for
lining; also the stuffe callimanco." But this, it is evident, cannot apply
to a manufacture of bombagio or cotton; and the Vocabolario della
Crusca, as well as the Glossary of Du Cange, speak of " bucherame bian-
chissima," and " bucherame bambagino," and both of them quote our
author for the use of the word. All the examples convey the idea of
fine, white, and soft cotton cloth ; the reverse of what is now called buck
ram. The early Latin text speaks of boccorame and bambace as two
distinct things.

3 Natural warm baths are" found in many parts of Asia Minor, and
particularly near Ancyra, the modern Angora or Anguri, which are still
much frequented. Their situation is denoted by the word ThermaB, in
RennelPs map explanatory of the Retreat of the Ten thousand. They
are also spoken of at Teflis in Georgia; but of their existence at Arzengan
I have not been able to find notice in the works of the Eastern geo
graphers.

City of Arzingan 35

native Armenians, but under the dominion of the Tartars.
In this province there are many cities, but Arzingan is the
principal,, and the seat of an archbishop; and the next in con
sequence are Argiron l and Darziz. 2 It is very extensive, and,
in the summer season, the station of a part of the army of the
Eastern Tartars, on account of the good pasture it affords for
their cattle: but on the approach of winter they are obliged
to change their quarters, the fall of snow being so very deep
that the horses could not find subsistence, and for the sake of
warmth and fodder they proceed to the southward. Within
a castle named Paipurth, 3 which you meet with in going from
Trebisond to Tauris, there is a rich mine of silver. 4 In the
central part of Armenia stands an exceedingly large and high
mountain, upon which, it is said, the ark of Noah rested, and
for this reason it is termed the mountain of the ark. 6 The

1 Argiron, or, in the Latin versions, Argyron, is a corruption of Arzerrum,
Erzerum, or Arzen er-rum, a distinctive name given to a city called Arzen,
as being the last strong place, in that direction, belonging to the Greek
empire. " Arzerrum," says Abulfeda, " est extremus finis regionum
Rumaeorum ab oriente. In ejus orientali et septentrionali latere est
fons Euphratis."

2 Darziz, which in the Basle edition is Darzirim, in the older Latin, Arziu,
and in the Italian epitomes, Arciri and Arziri, is the town now called
Arjis, situated on the border of the Lake Van, anciently named Arsissa
palus. Argish," says Macdonald Kinneir, " is a town containing six
thousand inhabitants, situated on the north-west side of the lake, three
days journey from Van. There are four islands in the lake, on one of
which is an Armenian monastery, and three hundred priests." Memoir
of the Persian Empire, pp. 328, 329. These places, it may be observed,
lay in pur author s returning route, from Tauris to Trebisond.

3 Paipurth, the Baiburt of D Anville s and RennelTs maps, is situated
among the mountains, in a northerly direction from Arzerrum. As the
word purt signifies a castle in the Armenian language, and as the Arabian
geographers, from not having the letter p in their alphabet, are obliged
to substitute the b, it is probable that the former is the more genuine
orthography. This castle is particularly noted by Josaphat Barbaro,
who says, * Partendo d essa (Trabisonda) per andar a Thauris . . . il
primo luogo notabile che si trova, e uno castello in piano in una valle
d ognitorno circondata da monti, nominate Baiburth, castel forte e
murato. . . . Cinque giornate piu in la, si trova Arsengan. . . . Poi
si ritrova un castello nominate Carpurth." Viaggio in Persia, p. 48, ed.
1545, i2ino.

* Although this particular mine may have been exhausted, silver
mines are known to exist in this part of Armenia.

5 The mountain of Armenia (the Ararat of Scripture) upon which the
ark is believed by the Christians of that country to have rested, stands
not far from the city of Erivan or Irwan. The Mahometans, however,
assign to it a different situation. " L opinion commune des Orientaux,"
says D Herbelot, est que Parche de Noe s arreta sur la montagne de
Gioudi, qui est une des croupes du mont Taurus ou Gordia3us eri Ar-
menie, et cette tradition est autorise en ce pays-la par plusieurs his-
toires qui approchent fort de la fable." " Joudi," says Ibn Haukal,
is a mountain near Nisibin. It is said that the ark of Noah (to whom

Travels of Marco Polo

circuit of its base cannot be compassed in less than two days
The ascent is impracticable on account of the snow towards
the summit, which never melts, but goes on increasing by each
successive fall. In the lower region, however, near the plain,
the melting of the snow fertilizes the ground, and occasions
such an abundant vegetation, that all the cattle which collect
there in summer from the neighbouring country, meet with a
never-failing supply. 1 Bordering upon Armenia, to the south
west, are the districts of Mosul and Maredin, which shall be
described hereafter, and many others too numerous to parti
cularize. To the north lies Zorzania, near the confines of which
there is a fountain of oil which discharges so great a quantity
as to furnish loading for many camels. 2 The use made of it
is not for the purpose of food, but as an unguent for the cure of
cutaneous distempers in men and cattle, as well as other com
plaints ; and it is also good for burning. In the neighbouring
country no other is used in their lamps, and people come from
distant parts to procure it.

be peace,) rested on the summit of this mountain." Ouseley s trans
lation, p. 60. Major Rennell observes, that Jeudi is the part of the
Carduchian mountains opposite to the Jezirat ibn Omar, and that the
dervishes keep a light burning there, in honour of Noah and his ark.

1 This fertility of the country in the vicinity of the mountains, is
noticed by Moses Chorenensis, who says, " Habet autem Araratia montes
camposque, atque omnem foecunditatem." Geographia, p. 361.

2 Springs of petroleum or earth (properly, rock) oil, are found in many
parts of the world. The spring or fountain here spoken of is that of
Baku in Shirvan, on the border of the Caspian. " Near to this place,"
says John Cartwright, in what are termed the Preacher s Travels, " is a
very strange and wonderful fountain under ground, out of which there
springeth and issueth a marvellous quantity of black oyl, which serveth
all parts of Persia to burn in their houses; and they usually carry it all
over the country upon kine and asses, whereof you shall oftentimes meet
three or four hundred in company." Oxford Coll. of Voyages, vol. i.
(vii.) p. 731. Strahlenberg speaks of this as a spring of white naphtha,
which he distinguishes from the black sort of bitumen; but the most
satisfactory account of both white and black naphtha in this district is
given by Kaempfer, in his Amcenitates Exoticae, p. 274 281.

Situation of Georgia 37

CHAPTER V

OF THE PROVINCE OF ZORZANIA AND ITS BOUNDARIES OF THE
PASS WHERE ALEXANDER THE GREAT CONSTRUCTED THE
GATE OF IRON AND OF THE MIRACULOUS CIRCUMSTANCES
ATTENDING A FOUNTAIN AT TEFLIS.

IN Zorzania 1 the king is usually styled David Melik, which
in our language signifies David the king. 2 One part of the
country is subject to the Tartars, and the other part, in con
sequence of the strength of its fortresses, has remained in the
possession of its native princes. It is situated between two
seas, of which that on the northern (western) side is called the
Greater sea (Euxine), and the other, on the eastern side, is
called the sea of Abakti (Caspian). 3 This latter is in circuit
two thousand eight hundred miles, and partakes of the nature
of a lake, not communicating with any other sea. It has
several islands, with handsome towns and castles, some of
which are inhabited by people who fled before the grand Tartar,
when he laid waste the kingdom or province of Persia, 4 and
took shelter in these islands or in the fastnesses of the moun
tains, where they hoped to find security. Some of the islands
are uncultivated. This sea produces abundance of fish,
particularly sturgeon and salmon at the mouths of the rivers,

1 By Zorzania is meant the kingdom of Georgia, bordering on Armenia,
and of which Teflis was the capital. The substitution of the z for the
soft g, belonged to the old Venetian dialect, in which the original of our
author s work is understood to have been written, and the orthography
las been preserved in some of the Latin, as well as in the vulgar Italian
versions. The early Latin text reads Georgia.

2 The name of David or Davit frequently occurs in the list of kings who
lave reigned in Georgia, and their predilection for it is traced to a very
emote source. It is not surprising, therefore, that a traveller should
mppose the names of the Georgian kings to have been, invariably,
David. The title of Melik shows that our author s information was
lerived from Arabs or Moghuls, who would naturally substitute it for
,he native title of Meppe.

3 The Caspian, which is generally termed by oriental writers the sea of
hozar, was also called by the Persians the sea of Baku, and by this
lame (Mar di Bachau) it appears in the maps to an edition of Ptolemy,
printed at Venice in 1562. It derives the appellation from the celebrated
dty and port of Baku, on its south-western coast.

4 This refers to the conquest and devastation of Persia by the armies
>f Jengiz-khan, about the year 1221. The islands, to which it is not
mprobable a number of the wretched inhabitants fled for security, are
it present uninhabited, or frequented only by fishermen.

Travels of Marco Polo

as well as others of a large sort. 1 The general wood of the
country is the box-tree. 2 I was told that in ancient times the
kings of the country were born with the mark of an eagle on
the right shoulder. 3 The people are well made, bold sailors,
expert archers, and fair combatants in battle. They are
Christians, observing the ritual of the Greek Church, and
wear their hair short, in the manner of the Western clergy.
This is the province into which, when Alexander the Great
attempted to advance northwards, he was unable to penetrate,
by reason of the narrowness and difficulty of a certain pass,
which on one side is washed by the sea, and is confined on the
other by high mountains and woods, for the length of four
miles; so that a very few men were capable of defending
it against the whole world. Disappointed in this attempt,
Alexander caused a great wall to be constructed at the entrance
of the pass, and fortified it with towers, in order to restrain
those who dwelt beyond it from giving him molestation. From
its uncommon strength the pass obtained the name of the Gate
of Iron, 4 and Alexander is commonly said to have enclosed the

1 The fishery of the Caspian, especially about the mouths of the Wolga,
has at all periods been important. Among the great variety of fish
with which this river abounds," says P. H. Bruce, " the sturgeon is none
of the least considerable, whose eggs afford what the Russians call ikari,
and we caviar: the beluga, or white fish, deserves also to be mentioned;
they are from five to six yards long, and thick in proportion. Besides
these it yields also the osotrin, another very large fish, very fat and deli
cious: this river also abounds with salmon, sterlitz, a most delicious
fish, and innumerable other sorts too tedious to mention." Memoirs,
p. 236. Strahlenberg also notices the beluja as " the largest eatable river-
fish in the world, having seen one fifty-six feet in length, and eighteen in
girth." P. 337-

2 By modern travellers the box-tree is merely enumerated amongst
the vegetable productions of the country, without any notice of its pre
valence; but by Ambrogio Cantareno, who travelled in the fifteenth
century, it is more particularly distinguished. Era in detta pianura,"
he says, in speaking of Mingrelia, " di molti arbori in modo di bussi, ma
molto maggiori." P. 65, izmo.

3 By this pretended tradition it may be understood that they were,
or affected to be thought, a branch of the imperial family of Constan
tinople, who bore the Roman eagle amongst their insignia.

4 This is the celebrated pass between the foot of Mount Caucasus and
the Caspian sea, where stands the small but strong city of Derbend,
called by the Arabs, Bab-al-abuab, or the " Gate of gates," by the Turks,
Demir-capi, or the " Gate of iron," and by the Persians, Derbend, or the
" Barrier," between Georgia and the Persian province of Shir van. " The
natives in general are of opinion," says P. H. Bruce, " that the city of
Derbent was built by Alexander the Great, and that the long wall that
reached to the Euxine, was built by his order, to prevent the incursions
of the Scythians into Persia." Memoirs, p. 284. The wall is said to
have been repaired by Yezdegerd II. of the Sassanian dynasty, who
reigned about the middle of the fifth century, and again by Nushirvan,
of the same family, who died in 579.

The Lake of Geluchalat 39

Tartars between two mountains. It is not correct, however,
to call the people Tartars, which in those days the) - were not,
but of a race named Cumani, 1 with a mixture of other nations.
In this province there are many towns and castles ; the neces
saries of life are in abundance; the country produces a great
quantity of silk, and a manufacture is carried on of silk inter
woven with gold. 2 Here are found vultures of a large size, of
a species named avigi? The inhabitants in general gain their
livelihood by trade and manual labour. The mountainous
nature of the country, with its narrow and strong defiles, have
prevented the Tartars from effecting the entire conquest of it.
At a convent of monks dedicated to Saint Lunardo, the follow
ing miraculous circumstances are said to take place. In a
salt-water lake, four days journey in circuit, upon the border
of which the church is situated, the fish never make their
appearance until the first day of Lent, and from that time to
Easter-eve they are found in vast abundance; but on Easter-
day they are no longer to be seen, nor during the remainder of
the year. It is called the lake of Geluchalat. 4 Into the before-

1 The notices we have, respecting the people named Comani or Coma-
nians, are in general obscure and vague. It appears, however, that in the
thirteenth century they were the inhabitants of the countries lying on
the north-western side of the Caspian, and extending from the Wolga
towards the Euxine, who were afterwards subdued and supplanted by
the Kapchak Tartars. " The Comans," says Gibbon, " were a Tartar
or Turkman horde which encamped in the Xlth and XII th centuries
on the verge of Moldavia. The greater part were pagans, but some
were Mahometans, and the whole horde was converted to Christianity
(A.D. 1370) by Lewis, king of Hungary."

2 Some of the provinces of Georgia, as well as of Armenia and the
adjoining parts of Persia, have in all ages been famous for the culture of
the silk- worm and commerce in silk.

1 1 know not what species of vulture is here meant, nor can we be cer
tain of the correctness of the orthography of the word avigi. That the
country is noted for birds of this class, appears from the writings of
several travellers. When Chardin arrived in Mingrelia he found it neces
sary to deceive the Turks by giving out that he was a merchant, whose
object in visiting the country was to procure birds of prey for the Euro
pean market.

* Within the proper boundaries of Georgia I am unable to identify this
large salt-water lake of Gelu-chalat. Upon an island in that near Erivan,
which D Anville names Gheuk-sha ou Eau bleu, stands a very ancient
monastery, which Chardin tells us was founded six hundred years before
his time, or in the eleventh century, and must therefore have existed in
our author s days; but on the other hand, its waters are described as
being fresh and sweet, and it is separated from Georgia by a ridge of
mountains. There is more reason for supposing it to be the lake now
called Van or Wan, and formerly Arjish, although this lies still further
within the boundary of Armenia. In its neighbourhood was situated a
town of some celebrity, named Khalat and Akhlat. Its circumference is
described by Abulfeda as being of four days* journey, and he says it is
noted for a peculiar species of fish called tharnag, said to resemble the
herring.

4-O Travels of Marco Polo

mentioned sea of Abaku, which is encompassed with moun
tains, the great rivers Herdil, 1 Geihon, Kur, and Araz, with
many others, disembogue. The Genoese merchants have
recently begun to navigate it, and they bring from thence the
kind of silk called ghellie. 2 In this province there is a hand
some city named Teflis, 3 around which are suburbs and many
fortified posts. It is inhabited by Armenian and Georgian
Christians, as well as by some Mahometans and Jews ; 4 but
these last are in no great numbers. Manufactures of silks and
of many other articles are carried on there. Its inhabitants
are subjects of the great king of the Tartars. 5 Although we
speak only of a few of the principal cities in each province, it
is to be understood that there are many others, which it is
unnecessary to particularise, unless they happened to contain
something remarkable ; but should the occasion present itself,
these will be hereafter described. Having spoken of the
countries bordering on Armenia to the north, we shall now
mention those which lie to the south and to the east.

1 By the Arabians and Turks the name of Etol is given to the Wolga,
and it is here corrupted to Herdil. This river, according to Ibn Haukal,
comes from the countries of Russ and Bulgar, and at the season when its
waters are collected, it is said to be greater than the river Jihun, rushing
into the sea with such a body that it seems to conquer the waters of the
Caspian. See Ouseley s translation, pp. 185 187. The names of Jihon or
Oxus, Kur or Cyrus, and Araz or Araxes, do not require any particular
remark.

2 The province of Ghilan (called also al-Ghil), on the Caspian, being
famous for its trade in silk, we can scarcely doubt that this word ghellie
or ghilli was a name given to the article on that account; as florentine,
a species of silk, has (or may be presumed to have) its appellation from
Florence. The red silk of Ghilan is mentioned by Niebuhr; and Elphin-
stone, speaking of the trade of Caubul with Persia, says, " The imports
are raw silk of Gheelaun and Resht, silken stuffs made at Yezd and Kas-
haun." P. 295.

8 For a particular account of the city of Teflis, the capital of Georgia
see Chardin, p. 220, fo. with the Plate. Our author s route from Tabriz
to Trebisond did not carry him to this city, and there is reason to con
clude that what little he says of it is from the report of others.

4 In Chardin s time this city contained fourteen churches, of which six
belonged to the Georgian, and eight to the Armenian Christians. Being
then subject to the Persian government, frequent attempts were made
by the Mahometans to erect mosques, but without success ; the populace
never failing to demolish the work.

5 By the king of the (Moghul) Tartars must here be understood the
descendant of Hulagu, who ruled over Persia and the neighbouring
countries; not the grand khan.

Christians of Mosul 41

CHAPTER VI

OF THE PROVINCE OF MOSUL AND ITS DIFFERENT INHABITANTS
OF THE PEOPLE NAMED KURDS AND OF THE TRADE OF
THIS COUNTRY.

MOSUL is a large province 1 inhabited by various descriptions
of people, one class of whom pay reverence to Mahomet, and
are called Arabians. 2 The others profess the Christian faith,
but not according to the canons of the church, which they
depart from in many instances, and are denominated Nes-
torians, Jacobites, and Armenians. They have a patriarch
whom they call Jacolit, 3 and by him archbishops, bishops, and
abbots are consecrated and sent to all parts of India, to Cairo,
to Baldach (Baghdad), and to all places inhabited by Chris-
tains ; in the same manner as by the pope of the Romish church.
All those cloths of gold and of silk which we call muslins 4 are of

1 The city of Mosul, or according to the Arabic pronunciation, Mausil,
formerly the capital of Mesopotamia and now of the Turkish pashalik
bearing its own name, stands upon the right or western bank of the Tigris,
opposite to the site of the ancient Nineveh, with which it is connected by
a bridge of boats. It is described by Abulfeda and all the oriental geo
graphers as one of the most distinguished cities under the Mahometan
government. Although our author terms it a province, he may be
thought to describe it rather as a city ; but the district itself is called by
the Arabians Diyar Mausil as well as Diyar al-Jezirah.

2 The bulk of the population is at this day Arabian, and that language
is the general medium of communication amongst the inhabitants, what
ever their national origin or religion may be.

3 This word, in some editions written J acolich, presents a striking
example of the degree of corruption our author s text has unfortunately
experienced, being no other than the title of Catholicos, by which the
patriarchs of the Greek church in Georgia and Armenia are distinguished.
The extent of their jurisdiction I am unable to ascertain, but suppose it
embraces all the communities of the same sect, wherever situated. The
Catholicos or Patriarch of Georgia, who was at the same time brother to
the Mahometan prince of the country, is mentioned by Chardin.

4 The origin of the word " muslin," in French, " mousseline," and in
Italian (from whence the others are borrowed), " mussolo e mussolino,
sorta di tela bambagina, cosi detta dal nome del paese dove per lo piii si
fabbrica," is here satisfactorily pointed out; but our author, if his editors
have not misrepresented his meaning, includes under that denomination
articles of a nature very different from that to which we apply the name.
It is not, however, improbable that the city of Mosul, being at this time
one of the greatest entrepots of eastern commerce, and also itself a place
of considerable manufacture, may have given the appellation to various
productions of the loom conveyed from thence to the Mediterranean,
although in later days the word mussolino has been exclusively applied
to the well-known Indian fabric or its imitations. When Ives, in the
account of his journey, tells us that " this city s manufacture is mussolen

42 Travels of Marco Polo

the manufacture of Mosul, and all the great merchants termed
Mossulini, who convey spices and drugs, in large quantities,
from one country to another, are from this province. In the
mountainous parts there is a race of people named Kurds,
some of whom are Christians of the Nestorian and Jacobite
sects, and others Mahometans. They are all an unprincipled
people, whose occupation it is to rob the merchants. 1 In the
vicinity of this province there are places named Mus and
Maredin, 2 where cotton is produced in great abundance, of
which they prepare the cloths called boccasini, and many other
fabrics. The inhabitants are manufacturers and traders, and
are all subjects of the king of the Tartars. We shall now
speak of the city of Baldach.

CHAPTER VII

OF THE GREAT CITY OF BALDACH OR BAGADET, ANCIENTLY
CALLED BABYLON OF THE NAVIGATION FROM THENCE TO
BALSARA, SITUATED IN WHAT IS TERMED THE SEA OF INDIA,
BUT PROPERLY THE PERSIAN GULF AND OF THE VARIOUS
SCIENCES STUDIED IN THAT CITY.

BALDACH is a large city, heretofore the residence of the khalif 3
or pontiff of all the Saracens, as the pope is of all Christians.

(a cotton cloth), which they make very strong and pretty fine, and sell
for the European and other markets," it is evident that he does not de
scribe a cloth of the delicate or flimsy texture that we call muslin, but
rather the kind that with us has acquired the name of calico, from the
city of Calicut in the East Indies.

1 Kurdistan, which formed the northern part of the ancient Assyria,
is a mountainous region to the eastward of the Tigris, and immediately
at the back of Mosul, Nisibin, and Maredin. The inhabitants for the
most part speak a corrupt dialect of Persian, but in their habits and
manners resemble the Bedouin Arabs, and like them make a practice
of robbing the caravans when not adequately protected. Cartwright
terms them " a most thievish people; " and the accounts of all subse
quent travellers agree in describing them as systematical plunderers: a
state of society that results from their local situation, being that of a
mountainous tract which must necessarily be traversed in passing from
one rich country to another. The principal articles of commerce in this
country appear to be gall-nuts, cotton, and a species of silk called kas or
ks, described by Niebuhr as growing on trees. Voyage, torn. ii. p. 268.

2 For an account of Maredin, a city of Mesopotamia, in the district of
Diyar-Rabiah, see the Voyage par Niebuhr. He speaks of its manu
factures of flax and cotton. Mush is a town on the borders of Kurdistan
and Armenia, between Bedlis and the Euphrates in the upper part of its
course.

3 The city of Baghdad was built by Abu Jafar al-Mansur, second khalif

The City of Baldach 43

A great river flows through the midst of it, 1 by means of which
the merchants transport their goods to and from the sea of
India; the distance being computed at seventeen days navi
gation, in consequence of the windings of its Bourse. Those
who undertake the voyage, after leaving the river, touch at a
place named Kisi, 2 from whence they proceed to sea: but pre
viously to their reaching this anchorage they pass a city named
Balsara, 3 in the vicinity of which are groves of palm-trees pro
ducing the best dates in the world. In Baldach there is a
manufacture of silks wrought with gold, and also of damasks,
as well as of velvets ornamented with the figures of birds and
beasts. 4 Almost all the pearls brought to Europe from India
have undergone the process of boring, at this place. The
Mahometan law is here regularly studied, as are also magic,

geomancy, and physiognomy. It is the

noblest and most extensive city to be found in this part of the
world.

of the Abbassite dynasty, about the year 765, and continued to be the
residence of his successors until the death of the last khalif of that race,
in the year 1258, when it fell under the dominion of the Moghuls.

1 This river is the Tigris, named Dijleh by the Arabs, which falls into
the Euphrates, when their united streams acquire the appellation of
Shat-al-arab, and discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf. The
modern city of Baghdad stands on the eastern bank, and is connected
with the suburb on the western side of the river by a bridge of boats ; but
on that side there are also found the ruins of buildings that belonged to
the ancient city or seat of the khalifs ; and our author is therefore correct
in describing it as divided by the river in his time. Abulfeda speaks of
it as occupying both banks of the Tigris.

2 Kisi, or Chisi in the Italian orthography, is a small island on the
eastern side of the Gulf of Persia, named Kis or Ks, to which the trade
of Siraf, a port on the neighbouring continent, much celebrated by
eastern geographers, was transferred; in consequence, as it may be pre
sumed, of wars in that quarter, and of injuries sustained by the mer
chants. The exact situation of the latter is not now pointed out by any
remains.

3 Balsara, more commonly written Balsora, but properly Basrah, is a
city of great commercial importance, situated on the south-west side of
the Shat-al-arab, about half-way between the point where the Euphrates
and Tigris unite their streams, and the Persian Gulf. It lies, conse
quently, in the way (as our author remarks) of those who navigate from
Baghdad to the island of Kis.

4 It may be suspected that instead of " velluti " (velvets), we should
here read " tappeti " (carpets), for the manufacture of which Persia has
always been celebrated. With respect to the figures of animals, the
Mahometans of the Shiah sect have never been strict, as those of the
Sunni are known to be, in prohibiting the representation of them in their
ornamental works,

44 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER VIII

CONCERNING THE CAPTURE AND DEATH OF THE KHALIF OF
BALDACH, AND THE MIRACULOUS REMOVAL OF A
MOUNTAIN.

THE above-mentioned khalif, who is understood to have
amassed greater treasures than had ever been possessed by any
other sovereign, perished miserably under the following cir
cumstances. 1 At the period when the Tartar princes began
to extend their dominion, there were amongst them four
brothers, of whom the eldest, named Mangu, reigned in the
royal seat of the family. Having subdued the country of
Cathay, and other districts in that quarter, they were not
satisfied, but coveting further territory, they conceived the
idea of universal empire, and proposed that they should
divide the world amongst them. With this object in view, it
was agreed that one of them should proceed to the east, that
another should make conquests in the south, and that the
other two should direct their operations against the remaining
quarters. The southern portion fell to the lot of Ulau, who
assembled a vast army, and having subdued the provinces
through which his route lay, proceeded in the year 1255 to
the attack of this city of Baldach. 2 Being aware, however, of
its great strength and the prodigious number of its inhabi
tants, he trusted rather to stratagem than to force for its re
duction, and in order to deceive the enemy with regard to the
number of his troops, which consisted of a hundred thousand
horse, besides foot soldiers, he posted one division of his army
on the one side, another division on the other side of the ap
proach to the city, in such a manner as to be concealed by a

1 Mostasem Billah, the last of the Abbassite khalifs of Baghdad, began
to reign in 1242, and was put to death in 1258. His character was that
of a weak, indolent, voluptuous, and at the same time avaricious prince,
who neglected the duties of his government, and committed them to the
hands of a wicked minister, by whom he was at length betrayed to his
mortal enemy.

2 This date is given in the early Latin text. Marsden has 1250; but
he observes that according to the most accurate oriental historians, it
was not until the year 1255 that Hulagu (whom Haiton calls Haolanus
or Haolo, P. Gaubil Holayou, and our author Ula-u) crossed the Oxus.
In 1256 he required Mostasem to assist him in the reduction of the
Ismaelians, and in 1258 obtained possession of Baghdad. P. Gaubil, upon
the authority of the Chinese annals, places this event in 1257.

Baldach Captured by the Tartars 45

wood, and placing himself at the head of the third, advanced
boldly to within a short distance of the gate. The khalif
made light of a force apparently so inconsiderable, and confi
dent in the efficacy of the usual Mahometan ejaculation,
thought of nothing less than its entire destruction, and for
that purpose marched out of the city with his guards; but
as soon as Ulau perceived his approach, he feigned to retreat
before him, until by this means he had drawn him beyond
the wood where the other divisions were posted. By the
closing of these from both sides, the army of the khalif was
surrounded and broken, himself was made prisoner, and the
city surrendered to the conquerer. Upon entering it, Ulau
discovered, to his great astonishment, a tower filled with
gold. He called the khalif before him, and after reproach
ing him with his avarice, that prevented him from employing
his treasures in the formation of an army for the defence of
his capital against the powerful invasion with which it had
long been threatened, gave orders for his being shut up in
this same tower, without sustenance ; and there, in the midst
of his wealth, be soon finished a miserable existence.

I judge that our Lord Jesus Christ herein thought proper
to avenge the wrongs of his faithful Christians, so abhorred
by this khalif. From the time of his accession in 1225, his
daily thoughts were employed on the means of converting to
his religion those who resided within his dominions, or, upon
their refusal, in forming pretences for putting them to death.
Consulting with his learned men for this purpose, they dis
covered a passage in the Gospel where it is said: " If ye have
faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto this moun
tain, Remove hence to yonder place, and it shall remove/
(upon prayer to that effect addressed to the Divine Majesty);
and being rejoiced at the discovery, persuaded as he was that
the thing was utterly impossible, he gave orders for assem
bling all the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians who dwelt in
Baghdad, and who were very numerous. To these the ques
tion was propounded, whether they believed all that is
asserted in the text of their Gospel to be true, or not. They
made answer that it was true. " Then/ said the khalif,
" if it be true, let us see which of you will give the proof of his
faith; for certainly if there is not to be found one amongst you
who possesses even so small a portion of faith in his Lord, as
to be equal to a grain of mustard, I shall be justified in re
garding you, henceforth, as a wicked, reprobate, and faithless

46 Travels of Marco Polo

people. I allow you therefore ten days, before the expiration
of which you must either, through the power of Him whom
you worship, remove the mountain now before you, or em
brace the law of our prophet; in either of which cases you will
be safe ; but otherwise you must all expect to suffer the most
cruel deaths." The Christians, acquainted as they were with
his merciless disposition, as well as his eagerness to despoil
them of their property, upon hearing these words, trembled
for their lives; but nevertheless, having confidence in their
Redeemer, that He would deliver them from their peril, they
held an assembly and deliberated on the course they ought to
take. None other presented itself than that of imploring the
Divine Being to grant them the aid of his mercy. To obtain
this, every individual, great and small, prostrated himself
night and day upon the earth, shedding tears profusely, and
attending to no other occupation than that of prayer to the
Lord. When they had thus persevered during eight days, a
divine revelation came at length, in a dream, to a bishop of
exemplary life, directing him to proceed in search of a certain
shoemaker (whose name is not known) having only one eye,
whom he should summon to the mountain, as a person capable
of effecting its removal, through the divine grace. Having
found the shoemaker and made him acquainted with the
revelation, he replied that he did not feel himself worthy of
the undertaking, his merits not being such as to entitle him
to the reward of such abundant grace. Importuned, however,
by the poor terrified Christians, he at length assented. It
should be understood that he was a man of strict morals and
pious conversation, having his mind pure and faithful to his
God, regularly attending the celebration of the mass and other
divine offices, fervent in works of charity, and rigid in the
observance of fasts. It once happened to him, that a hand
some young woman who came to his shop in order to be fitted
with a pair of slippers, in presenting her foot, accidentally
exposed a part of her leg, the beauty of which excited in
him a momentary concupiscence; but recollecting himself, he
presently dismissed her, and calling to mind the words of the
Gospel, where it is said, " If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out
and cast it from thee ; for it is better to enter the kingdom of
God with one eye, than having two eyes, to be cast into hell
fire," he immediately, with an instrument of his trade, scooped
out his right eye ; evincing by that act, beyond all doubt, the
excellence of his faith.

The Christians Saved Miraculously 47

The appointed day being arrived, divine service was per
formed at an early hour, and a solemn procession was made
to the plain where the mountain stood, the holy cross being
borne in front. The khalif likewise, in the conviction of its
proving a vain ceremony on the part of the Christians, chose
to be present, accompanied by a number of his guards, for
the purposing of destroying them in the event of failure. Here
the pious artisan, kneeling before the cross, and lifting up his
hands to heaven, humbly besought his Creator that he would
compassionately look down upon earth, and for the glory and
excellence of his name, as well as for the support and confirma
tion of the Christian faith, would lend assistance to his people
in the accomplishment of the task imposed upon them, and
thus manifest his power to the revilers of his law. Having
concluded his prayer, he cried with a loud voice: " In the
name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I command thee,
mountain, to remove thyself ! Upon these words being
uttered, the mountain moved, and the earth at the same time
trembled in a wonderful and alarming manner. The khalif
and all those by whom he was surrounded, were struck with
terror, and remained in a state of stupefaction. Many of the
latter became Christians, and even the khalif secretly em
braced Christianity, always wearing a cross concealed under
his garment, which after his death was found upon him; and
on this account it was that they did not entomb him in the
shrine of his predecessors. In commemoration of this singu
lar grace bestowed upon them by God, all the Christians,
Nestorians, and Jacobites, from that time forth have continued
to celebrate in a solemn manner the return of the day on
which the miracle took place; keeping a fast also on the vigil. 1

CHAPTER IX

OF THE NOBLE CITY OF TAURIS, IN IRAK, AND OF ITS COMMER
CIAL AND OTHER INHABITANTS.

TAURIS is a large and very noble city belonging to the pro
vince of Irak, which contains many other cities and fortified

1 The pretended miracle is here more minutely detailed than in other

versions, and the Latin text states it to have taken place at Tauris, and

not at Baghdad, although that would have been inconsistent with the

presence of the khalif. [The early Latin text says it occurred in 1275,

inter Baldach et Mesul; " and the French text agrees with it.]

4 8

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places, but this is the most eminent and most populous. 1 The
inhabitants support themselves principally by commerce and
manufactures, which latter consist of various kinds of silk,
some of them interwoven with gold, and of high price. It is
so advantageously situated for trade, that merchants from
India, from Baldach, Mosul, Cremessor, 2 as well as from dif
ferent parts of Europe, resort thither to purchase and to sell
a number of articles. Precious stones and pearls in abun
dance may be procured at this place. 8 The merchants con
cerned in foreign commerce acquire considerable wealth, but
the inhabitants in general are poor. They consist of a mixture
of various nations and sects, Nestorians, Armenians, Jacobites,
Georgians, Persians, and the followers of Mahomet, who form
the bulk of the population, and are those properly called
Taurisians. 4 Each description of people have their peculiar
language. The city is surrounded with delightful gardens,
producing the finest fruits. 5 The Mahometan inhabitants are
treacherous and unprincipled. According to their doctrine,
whatever is stolen or plundered from others of a different
faith, is properly taken, and the theft is no crime ; whilst
those who suffer death or injury by the hands of Christians,
are considered as martyrs. If, therefore, they were not pro-

1 The city of Tauris, by the Persians and other orientals named Tabriz,
is situated in the province of Aderbijan, which borders on that of Al-
Jebal, or the Persian Irak, and formed with it the ancient kingdom of
Media. It has been, at all periods, a place of great importance. Upon
the conquest of Persia by the Moghuls, about the year 1255, it became
the principal residence of Hulagu and his descendants, until the found
ing of Sultaniyah, in the beginning of the fourteenth century.

2 Cremessor, otherwise written Cremosor, Cormosa, Cremos, and
Cormos, is no other than the famous city of Ormuz or Honnuz, by the
ancients called Harmuza, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf; of which
there will be occasion to speak more particularly hereafter. Baldach,
we have already seen, is the city of Baghdad.

3 Chardin mentions a particular bazaar (" le plus beau de tous ") for
the sale of jewels, and other articles of extraordinary value. The pearls,
both from the fisheries of Ceylon, and from Bahrein in the Gulf of Persia,
appear to have been conveyed in the first instance to Baghdad, where
they were polished and bored, and from thence to the other markets of
Asia and Europe, and particularly to Constantinople.

4 These Persians, as distinguished from the Mahometans, must have
been the original inhabitants of Farsistan, who retained the ancient
religion of Zerdusht, or Zoroaster, the characteristic of which was the
worship of fire, and whom (in their modern state of expatriation) we
term Parsis. They constitute at this time the most wealthy, as well as
the most ingenious class of native inhabitants, living under the English
protection at Bombay.

6 Abulfeda praises its gardens ; and the abundance and variety of its
fruits are noticed by Chardin.

The Monastery of Saint Barsamo 49

nibited and restrained by the powers who now govern them, 1
they would commit many outrages. These principles are
common to all the Saracens. When they are at the point of
death, their priest attends upon them, and asks whether they
believe that Mahomet was the true apostle of God. If their
answer be that they do believe, their salvation is assured to
them; and in consequence of this facility of absolution, which
gives free scope to the perpetration of everything flagitious,
they have succeeded in converting to their faith a great pro
portion of the Tartars, who consider it as relieving them from
restraint in the commission of crimes. From Tauris to Persia
is twelve days journey. 2

CHAPTER X

OF THE MONASTERY OF SAINT BARSAMO, IN THE NEIGHBOUR
HOOD OF TAURIS.

NOT far from Tauris is a monastery that takes its name from
the holy saint Barsamo, 3 and is eminent for devotion. There
is here an abbot and many monks, who resemble the order
of Carmelites in the fashion of their dress. That they may
not lead a life of idleness, they employ themselves continually
in the weaving of woollen girdles, which they place upon the
altar of their saint during the celebration of divine service,
and when they make the circuit of the provinces, soliciting
alms (in the same manner as do the brethren of the order of
the Holy Ghost), they present these girdles to their friends
and to persons of distinction; being esteemed good for rheu
matic pains, on which account they are devoutly sought for
by all ranks.

1 That is, by their new lords, the Moghul Tartars.

2 This must be understood of Persia Proper, Pars or Farsistan, of
which Persepolis was the ancient capital, as Shiraz is the modern; but
he probably means the distance from Tauris to Kasbin, which he speaks
of in the next chapter as the first city upon entering Persia.

This saint is no doubt St. Barsimaeus, bishop of Edessa in the second
century.

50 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XI

OF THE PROVINCE OF PERSIA.

PERSIA was anciently a large and noble province, but it is
now a great part destroyed by the Tartars. In Persia there
is a city which is called Saba, from whence were the three
magi who came to adore Christ in Bethlehem; and the three
are buried in that city in a fair sepulchre, and they are all
three entire with their beards and hair. One was called Bal-
dasar, the second Caspar, and the third Melchior. Marco
inquired often in that city concerning the three magi, and
nobody could tell him anything about them, except that the
three magi were buried there in ancient times. After three
days journey you come to a castle which is called Palasata,
which means the castle of the fire- worshippers ; and it is true
that the inhabitants of that castle worship fire, and this
is given as the reason. The men of that castle say, that
anciently three kings of that country went to adore a certain
king who was newly born, and carried with them three offer
ings, namely, gold, frankincense, and myrrh: gold, that they
might know if he were an earthly king; frankincense, that
they might know if he were God; and myrrh, that they
might know if he were a mortal man. When these magi
were presented to Christ, the youngest of the three adored
him first, and it appeared to him that Christ was of his
stature and age. The middle one came next, and then the
eldest, and to each he seemed to be of their own stature and
age. Having compared their observations together, they
agreed to go all to worship at once, and then he appeared to
them all of his true age. When they went away, the infant
gave them a closed box, which they carried with them for
several days, and then becoming curious to see what he had
given them, they opened the box and found in it a stone,
which was intended for a sign that they should remain as
firm as a stone in the faith they had received from him. When,
however, they saw the stone, they marvelled, and thinking
themselves deluded, they threw the stone into a certain pit,
and instantly fire burst forth in the pit. When they saw this,
they repented bitterly of what they had done, and taking
some of the fire with them they carried it home. And having

Province of Persia 5 1

placed it in one of their churches, they keep it continually
burning, and adore that fire as a god, and make all their
sacrifices with it; and if it happen to be extinguished, they
go for more to the original fire in the pit where they threw the
stone, which is never extinguished, and they take of none other
fire. And therefore the people of that country worship fire.
Marco war told all this by the people of the country; and it
is true that one of those kings was of Saba, and the second
was of Dyava, and the third was of the castle. 1 Now we will
treat of the people of Persia and of their customs.

CHAPTER XII

OF THE NAMES OF THE EIGHT KINGDOMS THAT CONSTITUTE THE
PROVINCE OF PERSIA, AND OF THE BREED OF HORSES AND
OF ASSES FOUND THEREIN.

IN Persia, which is a large province, there are eight kingdoms, 2
the names of which are as follows : The first which you meet
with upon entering the country is Kasibin; 3 the second,

1 This story of the magi is no doubt of Eastern origin, as it does not
coincide with the Western legends. In other manuscripts the name is
written Kalasata-perinsta. The idea of a well ignited by celestial fire is
obviously founded on the existence of burning wells or caverns in various
parts of Asia, particularly at Baku, near the Caspian, and on the coast
of Karamania, seen by Capt. Beaufort; but to the Persian scholar the
name of the place will present the strongest criterion of veracity, as he
must perceive that the words Kala sata-perinsta are intended for Kalat
perestan, or perhaps Kalah atish perestan, literally, the " Castle of the
fire- worshippers." The name of Saba, which is certainly not to be dis
covered among the towns of Persia, may be thought to have a reference
to the doctrines of Sabai sm, so nearly connected with those of the Guebers.

2 In the ordinary use of these terms, a kingdom is understood to con
sist of provinces; but upon the partition of the immense empire inherited
by the descendants of Jengiz-khan, the province assigned (as a fief) to
each of his sons or grandsons comprehend what were, before his con
quests, independent kingdoms.

8 Upon entering Persian Irak from the side of Tauris, the first great
city (Sultaniyah not being then built) is Kasbin, or more properly Kazvin,
which has at different periods of its history been a royal residence. In
the enumeration of these eight kingdoms, our author sometimes gives
the name of the capital, as in this instance, and sometimes that of the
province or district, as in those which immediately follow. He seems to
have written down or dictated the names as they occurred to his recollec
tion, without system, and with little regard to arrangement.

52 Travels of Marco Polo

lying towards the south (west), is Kurdistan; 1 the third is
Lor; 2 towards the north, the fourth is Suolistan; 3 the fifth,
Spaan; 4 the sixth, Siras; 5 the seventh, Soncara; 6 the eighth,
Timocain, 7 which is at the extremity of Persia. All these
kingdoms lie to the south, excepting Timocain, and this is to

1 We should not have expected to find Kurdistan, which belonged to
the ancient Assyria, stated as one of the component parts of Persia,
although many parts of it have at times been brought under subjection
to that monarchy; nor, if included, can it be said to lie to the south.
It may, indeed, be conjectured that Khuristan (often written Khuzistan),
the ancient Susiana, situated at the head of the Persian gulf, and conse
quently south from Kazvin, and not Kurdistan, which lies to the west,
is the district intended. Churestan, ait Ol Muschtarek, etiam Chuzes-
tan appellatur. Est ampla provincia, multas urbes tenens, inter Al
Basram et Persiam." Abulfedae Geographia.

2 If the former place be meant for Khuristan, Lor or Lur may with
propriety be said to lie to the north of it, although with respect to Kazvin,
and Persia in general, it is a southern province. " II ne faut pas con-
fondre," says D Herbelot, " le pays de Lor avec celui de Lar ou Laristan,
qui s etend le long du gulfe Persique. Celui de Lor ou Lour est mon-
tagneux, et dependoit autrefois de la province nominee Kouzistan, qui
est 1 ancienne Susiane." Biblioth. Orient.

8 Of Suolistan it would be difficult to form any conjecture; but finding
the name, in other versions, written Cielstam, Ciliestam, and in the early
Italian epitome, Ciestan, I have little doubt of its being intended for
Sejestan, also written Siyestan, a province which lies in the eastern
quarter of Persia.

4 The city of Spaan, Spahan, or Ispahan, by the Arabians called
Isfahan, situated in the southern part of Persian Irak, is well known as
the magnificent capital of the kings of the Sefi family, which, especially
during the reign of Shah Abbas II., exceeded in splendour, as well as
extent, most Asiatic cities. It fell under the dominion of the Moghuls
in 1 22 1, and was taken, plundered, and nearly destroyed by Tamerlane
in 1387.

Shiraz, the capital of Pars or Persia proper, and, at some periods, of
the Persian empire, is also too well known, by the description of travellers,
to render it necessary to say more here than that it ranks next to Ispahan
amongst the royal cities.

6 This much corrupted name, which is Soncara in Ramusio s text,
Socham in that of the Basle edition, Sontara in the earlier Latin, Concara
in the B. M., and Soncara (according to Miiller) in the Berlin manuscript,
Corcata in the Italian epitomes, and Corchara in the old English version,
is the Korkan or Gurkan of eastern geographers, and evidently connected
with the Hyrcania of the ancients. Its situation is at the south-eastern
extremity of the Caspian, north of the Damaghan range and of the pro
vince of Kumis or Comisene.

7 However distant the resemblance of the names may be thought,
Timocain (which in the Basle edition is Tymochaim, and in the older
Latin, Thymachaym) is undoubtedly intended for Damaghan, the capital
of the small province of Kumis, in the north-eastern quarter of Persia.
By Josaphat Barbaro, the Venetian ambassador to that court, it is called
Tremigan ; and by our countryman, Thomas Herbert, Diurgument : but
this, we find, was not his own corruption; for in one of the letters of
Pietro della Valle, he complains of this abuse and uncertainty in the
names of places: " Come per essempio, quel Diargument, che I Epitome
Geografica dice esser nome moderno dell Hircania."

Products of Persia

53

the north,, near the place called Arbor Secco. 1 The country
is distinguished for its excellent breed of horses, many of which
are carried for sale to India, and bring high prices, not less in
general than two hundred livres tournois. 2 It produces also
the largest and handsomest breed of asses in the world, which
sell (on the spot) at higher prices than the horses, because they
are more easily fed, are capable of carrying heavier burthens,
and travel further in the day than either horses or mules,
which cannot support an equal degree of fatigue. The
merchants, therefore, who in travelling from one province to
another are obliged to pass extensive deserts and tracts of sand,
where no kind of herbage is to be met with, and where, on ac
count of the distance between the wells or other watering
places, it is necessary to make long journeys in the course of
the day, are desirous of providing themselves with asses in
preference, as they get sooner over the ground and require a
smaller allowance of food. Camels also are employed here,
and these in like manner carry great weights and are main
tained at little cost, but they are not so swift as the asses.
The traders of these parts convey the horses to Kisi, 3 to
Ormus, and to other places on the coast of the Indian sea,
where they are purchased by those who carry them to India.
In consequence, however, of the greater heat of that country,
they do not last many years, being natives of a temperate
climate. In some of these districts, the people are savage and
bloodthirsty, making a common practice of wounding and
murdering each other. They would not refrain from doing
injury to the merchants and travellers, were they not in terror
of the eastern Tartars, 4 who cause them to be severely
punished. A regulation is also established, that in all roads
where danger is apprehended, the inhabitants shall be obliged,

1 The district to which the appellation of Arbor Secco was given has
already been adverted to, and will be found more particularly mentioned
in a subsequent chapter.

2 The excellence of the Persian horses, for which they may perhaps be
indebted to the mixture of the Arabian and the Turki breed, is well
known. A detailed account of their qualities is given by Chardin (torn,
ii. chap. viii. p. 25, 4to) ; and also by Malcolm (Hist, of Persia, vol. ii.
p. 516). As the livre tournois, in the fourteenth century, was at the pro
portionate value of twenty-five to one livre of the present times, it
follows that the price at which the Persian horse sold in India was from
fifteen hundred to two thousand rupees.

3 Kisi or Chisi has been shown (p. 43, note,) to be the island of Kis or
Kes, to which the trade of Siraf, in the Persian gulf, was removed. Of
the celebrated port of Ormuz, there will be occasion to speak hereafter.

* By the eastern Tartars are meant the Moghul Tartars, who
entered Persia from the eastern side of the Caspian.

54 Travels of Marco Polo

upon the requisition of the merchants, to provide active and
trusty conductors for their guidance and security, between
one district and another; who are to be paid at the rate of two
or three groats l for each loaded beast, according to the dis
tance. They are all followers of the Mahometan religion.
In the cities, however, there are merchants and numerous
artisans, who manufacture a variety of stuffs of silk and gold. 2
Cotton grows abundantly in this country, as do wheat, barley, 3
millet, and several other sorts of grain; together with grapes
and every species of fruit. Should any one assert that the
Saracens do not drink wine, being forbidden by their law,
it may be answered that they quiet their consciences on
this point by persuading themselves that if they take the
precaution of boiling it over the fire, by which it is partly
consumed and becomes sweet, they may drink it without
infringing the commandment; for having changed its taste,
they change its name, and no longer call it wine, although it is
such in fact. 4

1 The Italian grossi, or groats, were a small silver coin, which have
differed in weight and value at different periods.

2 " Je ne parlerai point," says Chardin, " d une infinite de sortes
d etoffes de soye pure, ni des etoffes de soye avec du coton. . . . Je
ne parlerai que de leurs brocards. Us appellent le brocard Zerbafe,
c est-a-dire, tissure d or. . . . II ne se fait point d etoffe si chere par
tout le monde." (torn. ii. p. 86, 4to.) Pottinger, speaking of the manu
factures of Kashan, says: " Its staples are copper-ware, carpets, and
coloured and flowered silks, which latter are exquisitely beautiful. I
purchased some of them made in scarfs, in imitation of the richest Kash-
meer shawls." Travels in Beloochistan, p. 244.

3 Wheat grows in the northern provinces of Persia, and also in the
southern, although less commonly. " Barley," says Malcolm, " is often
sold in Persia at one farthing per pound, and wheat is not on the average
more than a third of the price dearer than barley." Hist, of Persia, vol.

ii. p. 5*9-

4 The practice of boiling wine is known to be common amongst the
eastern people, but whether the motive for it here assigned be the true
one, or whether we should not rather conclude that they prefer the taste,
may be doubted. The Persians have always been less strict than the
other more orthodox Mahometans, in regard to indulgence in wine; and
Pietro della Valle mentions two ordinances of Shah Abbas; the one for
bidding the use of it, which shows that the religious precept had failed
of its effect; and a second annulling the prohibition, upon his finding
that the people, and especially the soldiers, had substituted for wine a
liquid preparation of opium, by which their health was injured.

The City of Yasdi 55

CHAPTER XIII

OF THE CITY OF YASDI AND ITS MANUFACTURES, AND OF THE
ANIMALS FOUND IN THE COUNTRY BETWEEN THAT PLACE
AND KIERMAN.

YASDI is a considerable city on the confines of Persia, where
there is much traffic. 1 A species of cloth of silk and gold
manufactured there is known by the appellation of Yasdi,
and is carried from thence by the merchants to all parts of
the world. 2 Its inhabitants are of the Mahometan religion.
Those who travel from that city, employ eight days in passing
over a plain, in the course of which they meet with only three
places that afford accommodation. 3 The road lies through
extensive groves of the date-bearing palm, in which there
is abundance of game, as well beasts as partridges and quails;
and those travellers who are fond of the amusements of the
chase, may here enjoy excellent sport. Wild asses 4 are like
wise to be met with, very numerous and handsome. At the
end of eight days you arrive at a kingdom named Kierman. 5

1 Yezd is the most eastern city of the province of Fars or Persia Proper.
Captain Christie, by whom it was visited in 1810, describes it as " a very
large and populous city, situated on the edge of a sandy desert, contigu
ous to a range of mountains running east and west." " It is celebrated,"
he observes, " by all merchants, for the protection afforded to speculators,
and the security of its inhabitants and their property. It is the grand
mart between Hindoostan, Khorasan, Bagdad, and Persia, and is said
to be a place of greater trade than any other in the latter empire."
Trav. in Beloochistan, App. p. 421.

2 D Herbelot observes that " les etoffes de soye qu on y travaille, et
que Ton appelle en Turc et en Persan comasche Yezdi, la rendent fort
marchande." In the Memoirs of Abdulkurrim, also, we read of a dona
tion made to an ambassador, by Nadir Shah, consisting of twenty-five
pieces of Yezdy brocade.

1 This is usually named the Desert of Kirman.

* We read of wild asses delivered as presents, and consequently as
curiosities, to Shah Abbas, and other kings of Persia. Rennell observes
that " the wild asses remarked by Xenophon for their swiftness, bear
much the same character at present. Texeira in 1606 saw herds of them
in the Arabian desert, immediately opposite to the desert of Mesopotamia,
where Xenophon saw them." Illustrations, p. 100.

6 The distance between Yezd and the capital of Kirman is about one
hundred and sixty geographical miles, which would be at the rate of
twenty miles per day. But the average travelling rate of a light cara
van, as deduced by Major Rennell, is only fifteen to fifteen and a half,
with camels, or seventeen to eighteen with mules; when on long journeys.
It may, indeed, be understood that the desert alone, exclusive of some
portion of cultivated country, employed eight days. Some of the manu
scripts have seven days.

Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XIV

OF THE KINGDOM OF KIERMAN, BY THE ANCIENTS NAMED KAR-
MANIA OF ITS FOSSIL AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS ITS
MANUFACTURES ITS FALCONS AND OF A GREAT DESCENT
OBSERVED UPON PASSING OUT OF THAT COUNTRY.

KIERMAN is a kingdom on the eastern confines of Persia/
which was formerly governed by its own monarchs, in here
ditary succession; but since the Tartars have brought it under
their dominion, they appoint governors to it at their pleasure.
In the mountains of this country are found the precious
stones that we call turquoises. 2 There are also veins of
steel 3 and of antimony 4 in large quantities. They manu
facture here in great perfection all the articles necessary for

1 Kirman is a province of Persia, situated at the south-eastern ex
tremity of that kingdom. Its capital city appears to be most usually
called by the same name, but is also known by that of Sirgan, as the word
is pronounced by the Persians, or Sir j an, as pronounced by the Arabs.
" The city of Kirman," says Pottinger, " is situated on the western side
of a capacious plain, so close to the mountains, that two of them, on
which there are ancient decayed forts, completely command it. It was
once the most flourishing in Persia, and in size was second to none, except
the capital, Isfahan. . . . No city in the East has been more subject
to reverses of fortune, or oftener the scene of the most destructive wars,
both foreign and domestic, than Kirman." P. 222. It would seem
that our author did not consider Kirman as being, in his time, an integral
part of Persia, from his not including it amongst the eight provinces or
kingdoms which he enumerates; and in this light also it was held by
Edrisi, who wrote in the twelfth century, and says, " Et vero terra Kar-
man interjacet terra3 Persia et terrae Mecran." P. 129.

* " La plus riche mine de Perse," says Chardin, " est celle des tur
quoises. On en a en deux endroits, a Nichapour en Carasson, et dans
une montagne qui est entre I Hyrcanie et la Parthide, a quatre journees
de la Mer Caspienne, nominee Phirous-cou." Tom. ii. p. 24, 4to. " In
these mountains," says Malcolm, speaking of Nishapore, " the Ferouzah
or turquoise stone is found." Hist, of Persia, vol. ii. p. 220, note.

3 " Les mines de fer," says Chardin, " sont dans I Hyrcanie, dans la
Medie septentrionale, au pai s des Parthes, et dans la Bactriane. Les
mines d acier se trouvent dans les memes pai s, et y produisent beau-
coup." p. 23. He then proceeds to describe its particular qualities,
and to compare it with the steel of India.

4 The word " andanico " of Ramusio s text, or " andanicum " of the
Basle edition, is not to be found in any dictionary? nor have preceding
translators attempted to render it by any corresponding term, but have
let the word stand as they found it in their copy. I should not, from any
resemblance of sound, have hazarded the conjecture of its being intended
for " antimonio; " but learning from the travels of Chardin that anti
mony is the produce of countries on the eastern side of Persia, of which
our author here speaks, I consider the probability of such a corrup
tion as having some weight.

The Kingdom of Kierman 57

warlike equipment, such as saddles, bridles,, spurs, swords,
bows, quivers, and every kind of arms in use amongst these
people. The women and young persons work with the needle,
in embroideries of silk and gold, in a variety of colours and
patterns, representing birds and beasts, with other ornamental
devices. 1 These are designed for the curtains, coverlets, and
cushions of the sleeping places of the rich; and the work is
executed with so much taste and skill as to be an object of
admiration. In the mountainous parts are bred the best
falcons that anywhere take wing. They are smaller than the
peregrine falcon; reddish about the breast, belly, and under
the tail; and their flight is so swift that no bird can escape
them. Upon leaving Kierman, you travel for seven days
along a plain, by a pleasant road, and rendered still more de
lightful by the abundance of partridges and other game. 2
You also meet frequently with towns and castles, as well as
scattered habitations; until at length you arrive at a moun- N
tain whence there is a considerable descent, which occupies
two days. Fruit trees are found there in great numbers ; the
district having formerly been peopled, though at present with
out inhabitants, except herdsmen alone, who are seen attend
ing the pasturing of their cattle. In that part of the country
which you pass before you reach the descent, the cold is so
severe that a man can with difficulty defend himself against
it by wearing many garments and pelisses. 3

1 " I learn," says Pottinger, " from a manuscript history of the con
quest of Mukran, in the ninetieth year of the hijree, that Kirman was
then a very extensive city, full of riches, and celebrated for the excellence
of the shawls and arms made in it." P. 222. " The trade of Kirman,
though still considerable, has never revived in a manner to be compared
to what it was previous to its last depopulation. ... Its manufac
tures of shawls, matchlocks, and numuds or felts, are celebrated all over
Asia, and are said to afford employment to upwards of one- third of the
inhabitants, whether male or female." P. 225.

2 " Les perdrix de Perse," says Chardin, "scat, comme je crois, les
pluns grosses perdrix du monde et du gout le plus excellent." -P. 30.

8 The road from the city of Kirman towards the Persian Gulf, here
described, probably lay through the town of Bam or Bumm, which stands
near the boundary line between what are considered as the cold and the
warm regions of Kirman. [ The province of Nurmansheer," says Pot
tinger, extends from the waste dividing it from Beloochistan to the
city of Bumm. . . . Its boundary to the westward is the province of
Kirman, of which, I believe, it is now deemed a component district; to
the eastward it has the desert, as already mentioned; and, north and
south, two ranges of mountains, the last of which are by much the highest,
and I imagine, at all seasons, crowned with snow, as they were when I
saw them, at which period it was exceedingly hot in the plain beneath."
P. 199. These appear to be the mountains of Maren, which, says Ibn
Haukal, belong to the cold region of Kirman; snow falls on them."
P. 141.

Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XV

OF THE CITY OF KAMANDU, AND DISTRICT OF REOBARLE OF
CERTAIN BIRDS FOUND THERE OF A PECULIAR KIND OF
OXEN AND OF THE KARAUNAS, A TRIBE OF ROBBERS.

AT the end of the descent of this mountain, you arrive at a
plain that extends, in a southern direction, to the distance of
five days journey; at the commencement of which there is a
town named Kamandu, 1 formerly a very large place and of
much consequence, but not so at this day, having been re
peatedly laid waste by the Tartars. The neighbouring district
is called Reobarle. 2 The temperature of the plain is very
warm. It produces wheat, rice, and other grains. On that
partjDf it which lies nearest to the hills, dates, pomegranates,
quinces, and a variety of other fruits, grow, amongst which is
one called Adam s apple, 3 not known in our cool climate.
Turtle-doves are found here in vast numbers, occasioned by
the plenty of small fruits which supply them with food, and
their not been eaten by the Mahometans, who hold them
in abomination. 4 There are likewise many pheasants and
francolins, which latter do not resemble those of other coun-

1 The geography of the country lying between the capital of the pro
vince of Kirman and the Persian Gulf is very imperfectly known; and
even Pottinger s map, the most modern we possess, exhibits but one
solitary name in that tract, although the chains of hills are there laid
down with an appearance of precision. It is difficult therefore to ascer
tain the place intended by Kamandu (in the B. M. and Berlin manu
scripts, Camandi, and in the Italian epitomes, Edgamad), even if there
were grounds to believe that this town, which had lost its consequence
before our author s time, is still in existence. It may perhaps be the
Memaun of D Anville s map, which is called Mahan by Ibn Haukal, or
else the Koumin of the latter: but these are offered as mere conjectures.

2 Reobarle is obviously meant for Rud-bar, a descriptive term applied,
in numerous instances, to towns or districts in Persia and the neighbour
ing countries. It signifies " a river in a valley, the channel of a torrent,
and also a place where many streams run; " and the district here spoken
of as answering that description, would seem from the circumstances to
have occupied the banks of the river which in D Anville s and Malcolm s
maps bears the name of Div Rud, and must be crossed in the way from
Kirman or Ormuz.

3 Pomus A dami is a name that has been given to the fruit called pumple-
nose, shaddock, or citrus decumanus of Linnaeus; but here it may prob
ably be intended for the orange itself, or pomum aurantium, named by
the Arabians and Persians naranj.

* This objection to the flesh of doves, as food, may have been a local
prejudice; for it does not appear that they are generally regarded as an
unclean meat by a Mahometan.

Zoology of Persia 59

tries, their colour being a mixture of white and black with red
legs and beak. 1 Among the cattle also there are some of an
uncommon kind, particularly a species of large white oxen,
with short, smooth coats (the effect of a hot climate), horns
short, thick, and obtuse, and having between the shoulders a
gibbous rising or hump, about the height of two palms. 2 They
are beautiful animals, and being very strong are made to
carry great weights. Whilst loading, they are accustomed to
kneel down like the camel, and then to rise up with the bur
then. We find here also sheep that are equal to the ass in size,
with long and thick tails, weighing thirty pounds and upwards,
which are fat and excellent to eat. 3 In this province there
are many towns encompassed with lofty and thick walls of
earth, 4 for the purpose of defending the inhabitants against

1 The tetrao francohnus, or francoline partridge of the Levant, has red
legs and beak, as here described. Dr. Russell calls it francolinus oUnce,
" known to the French by the name of gelinot (gelinotte)." The flesh,
he says, is delicious, but the bird is not to be met with at less than a
day s journey from the city. (Nat. Hist, of Aleppo.)

This species of ox, commonly employed at Surat and other places on
the western coast of India, in drawing the carriages called hakkries, was
probably introduced from thence to the eastern provinces of Persia. It
has been described by many writers, and among others by Niebuhr.
See Voyage en Arabic, etc. torn. ii. p. 52. tab. xii.

8 This extraordinary breed of sheep (ovis laticaudata) is a native of
various parts of Asia and Africa, and has been often described. In the
Natural History of Aleppo, the following circumstantial account of it is
given, with a plate: "They have two sorts of sheep," says Russell,
" in the neighbourhood of Aleppo: the one called Beduin sheep, which
differ in no respect from the larger kinds of sheep in Britain, except that
their tails are somewhat longer and thicker: the others are those often
mentioned by travellers on account of their extraordinary tails ; and this
species is by much the most numerous. This tail is very broad and
large, terminating in a small appendage that turns back upon it. It is
of a substance between fat and marrow, and is not eaten separately, but
mixed with the lean meat in many of their dishes, and also often used
instead of butter. A common sheep of this sort, without the head, feet,
skin and entrails, weighs about twelve or fourteen Aleppo rotoloes (of
five pounds), of which the tail is usually three rotoloes or upwards; but
such as are of the largest breed and have been fattened, will sometimes
weigh above thirty rotoloes, and the tails of these, ten (or fifty pounds) ;
a thing to some scarce credible. These very large sheep being, about
Aleppo, kept up in yards, are in no danger of injuring their tails; but in
some other places, where they feed in the fields, the shepherds are obliged
to fix a piece of thin board to the under part of the tail, to prevent its
being torn by bushes, thistles, etc.; and some have small wheels, to
facilitate the dragging of this board after them; whence, with a little
exaggeration, the story of having carts to carry their tails." P. 51.
Chardin s account of " les moutons grosse queue," of Persia, whose
tails, he says, weigh thirty pounds, corresponds exactly with the above.

4 Frequent mention is made by Hamilton of these mud entrench
ments. " The Ballowches," he says, " appeared near the town of Gom
broon, on a swift march towards it, which scared the (Persian) governor

60 Travels of Marco Polo

the incursions of the Karaunas, who scour the country and
plunder every thing within their reach. 1 In order that the
reader may understand what people these are, it is necessary
to mention that there was a prince named Nugodar, the
nephew of Zagatai, who was brother of the Grand Khan
(Oktai), and reigned in Turkestan. 2 This Nugodar, whilst
living at Zagatai s court, became ambitious of being himself
a sovereign, and having heard that in India there was a pro
vince called Malabar, 3 governed at that time by a king named

so much, that, although there was an high mud wall between him and
them, he got on horseback and fled. . . . The Ballowches came first
to the west quarter of the town, where our factory stands, and soon made
passages through the mud walls." New Account of the East Indies, vol.
i. p. 108. The village of Bunpoor," says Pottinger, " is small and ill-
built : it has been at one time surrounded by a low mud wall, with small
bastions at intervals; but the whole is now gone to decay." Travels in
Beloochistan and Sinde, p. 176.

1 The early Latin text calls them " Scarani et Malandrini." The Ka-
raunas we may presume to be the inhabitants of Makran, a tract of
country extending from the vicinity of the Indus towards the Persian
Gulf, and which takes its name from the word kardna, signifying a " shore,
coast, or border." They appear to differ little from the neighbouring
people of Baluchistan, if they be not in fact the same race ; and what
our author states of them is a faithful picture of the predatory habits
ascribed to the latter. " The Boloujes," says Ibn Haukal, " are in
the desert of Mount Kefes, and Kefes in the Parsi language is Kouje;
and they call these two people Koujes and Boloujes. The Boloujes are
people who dwell in the desert; they infest the roads, and have not
respect for any person." P. 140. Of the habits of this people we have
the most particular account in the journal of Lieut. Pottinger, who says,
" The Nharooes are the most savage and predatory class of Belooches;
and whilst they deem private theft dishonourable and disgraceful in the
extreme, they contemplate the plunder and devastation of a country
with such opposite sentiments, that they consider it an exploit deserving
of the highest commendation; and steeled by that feeling, they will
individually recount the assistance they have rendered on such occasions,
the numbers of men, women, and children they have made captives and
carried away or murdered, the villages they have burned and plundered,
and the flocks they have slaughtered when unable to drive them off."
P. 58. " We are now in Mukran," said a native of Beloochistan to the
same traveller, " where every individual is a robber by caste, and where
they do not hesitate to plunder brothers and neighbours." P. 139.

8 Nikodar Oghlan was the son of Hulagu, and grand nephew of Jagatai;
lie succeeded his brother Abaka in the throne of Persia, by the name of
Ahmed Khan, and was the first of his family who made public profession
of Mahometanism. If the Nikodar, who pushed his fortune, as we are
here told, on the side of India, did actually visit the court of Jagatai,
who died in 1240, he must have belonged to the preceding generation, as
it was not until 1282 that Ahmed Khan Nikodar became the sovereign
of Persia, and forty-two years is an interval too great to admit of our
supposing him to have been the eastern adventurer. There may have
been an earlier Nikodar amongst the numerous grandsons of Jengiz-khan,
and in fact the consistency of the story requires that the event should
have taken place long before our author s time.

3 I must here be indulged in a conjecture, which, however bold it may
seem, will be justified by the sequel: that instead of Malabar or Malawar

Conquest of Delhi 6 1

As-idin Sultan/ which had not yet been brought under the
dominion of the Tartars, he secretly collected a body of about
ten thousand men, the most profligate and desperate he could
find, and separating himself from his uncle without giving him
any intimation of his designs, proceeded through Balashan 2
to the kingdom of Kesmur, 3 where he lost many of his people
and cattle, from the difficulty and badness of the roads, and
at length entered the province of Malabar. 4 Coming thus
upon As-idin by surprise, he took from him by force a city
called Dely, as well as many others in its vicinity, and there
began to reign. 5 The Tartars whom he carried thither, and
who were men of a light complexion, mixing with the dark
Indian women, produced the race to whom the appellation of
Karaunas is given, signifying, in the language of the country,
a mixed breed; 6 and these are the people who have since been

(as it is often written) the word should be, and was in the original, Laha-
war, or, as commonly pronounced, Lahore; for through this province,
and certainly not through Malabar, this adventurer must necessarily have
passed in his way to Delhi.

1 Azz-eddin, Ghiyas-eddin, and Moazz-eddin, with the addition of
Sultan, were common titles of the Patan sovereigns of Delhi, as well as
of the princes who governed the provinces of their empire.

2 Badakhshan, near the sources of the Oxus, lies on that side of Jagatai s
country which is nearest to the heads of the Indus and Ganges, and con
sequently in the line of march towards Delhi.

8 Kesmur can be no other than Kashmir, which lies in the direction
from Badakhshan towards Lahore, Sirhind, and the capital. The more
common route is by Kabul, but the object of this petty invader was, to
keep amongst the mountains, and thereby conceal his intentions.

4 Here it becomes perfectly obvious, that the country into which he
penetrated upon leaving Kashmir was the Panjab, of which Lahawar or
Lahore is the principal city.

* We do not read in any native historian, of this conquest of Delhi by
the Moghul Tartars, antecedent to the invasion by Tamerlane. But we
learn from the History of Hindustan, as translated by Dow from the
text of Ferishta, that Moazz-eddin Byram Shah, king of Delhi, whose
reign began in 1239 and ended in 1242, was involved in troubles with his
vizir and principal omrahs, by whom a mutiny was excited amongst his
troops. At this crisis, news arrived that the Moghuls of the great
Zingis had invested Lahore; that Malek, the viceioy of that place, find
ing his troops mutinous, had been obliged to flee in the night, and was
actually on his way to Delhi; and that Lahore was plundered by the
enemy, and the miserable inhabitants carried away prisoners." " The
vizir, in the meantime, advanced with the army to the capital, which he
besieged for three months and a half. Rebellion spreading at last among
the citizens, the place was taken in the year 1241. Byram was thrown
into prison, where, in a few days, he came to a tragical end. The Moghuls
after plundering the provinces on the banks of the five branches of the
Indus, returned to Ghizni." Thus we perceive that at the very period
in question, which was a little before or after the death of Jagatai in 1240,
an army of Moghuls did advance into provinces subject to the king of
Delhi, and plundered his frontier cities.

8 One of the meanings of the Sanskrit word karana is, "a person of a
mixed breed/

6 2 Travels of Marco Polo

in the practice of committing depredations,, not only in the
country of Reobarle, but in every other to which they have
access. In India they acquired the knowledge of magical
and diabolical arts, by means of which they are enabled to pro
duce darkness, obscuring the light of day to such a degree, that
persons are invisible to each other, unless within a very small
distance. 1 Whenever they go on their predatory excursions,
they put this art in practice, and their approach is conse
quently not perceived. Most frequently this district is the
scene of their operations; because when the merchants from
various parts assemble at Ormus, and wait for those who are
on their way from India, they send, in the winter season, their
horses and mules, which are out of condition from the length of
their journey, to the plain of Reobarle, where they find abun
dance of pasture and become fat. The Karaunas, aware that
this will take place, seize the opportunity of effecting a general
pillage, and make slaves of the people who attend the cattle,
if they have not the means of ramsom. Marco Polo himself 2
was once enveloped in a factitious obscurity of this kind, but
escaped from it to the castle of Konsalmi. 3 Many of his com
panions, however, were taken and sold, and others were put to
death. These people have a king named Corobar.

1 The belief in such supernatural agency was the common weakness of
the darker ages. Although the appearance and effects are materially
different, it may be suspected that there is some connexion between this
story of mists produced by enchantment, and the optical deception
noticed by Elphinstone, in his journey across what may be considered as
an extension of the same desert, notwithstanding the separation of its
parts by the country through which the Indus takes its course. " To
wards evening," he says, " many persons were astonished with the ap
pearance of a long lake, enclosing several little islands. ... It was,
however, only one of those illusions which the French call mirage, and
the Persians sirraub. I had imagined this phenomenon to be occasioned
by a thin vapour (or something resembling a vapour), which is seen over
the ground in the hot weather in India, but this appearance was entirely
different, and, on looking along the ground, no vapour whatever could be
perceived. ... I shall not attempt to account for this appearance,
but shall merely remark, that it seems only to be found in level, smooth,
and dry places." Account of Caubul, p. 16.

z The story may amount to nothing more than that these robbers,
having their haunts in the neighbourhood of mountains, availed them
selves of the opportunity of thick mists, to make their attacks on the
caravans with the more security; whilst their knowledge of the country
enabled them to occupy those narrow denies through which the travellers
must unavoidably pass.

8 This castle of Konsalmi, or, according to another reading, Kanosalim,
is not now to be discovered in our maps, but it may be remarked that the
Persian words Khanah al-salam signify, " the house of safety, or peace."
" A small but neat tower," says Elphinstone, " was seen in this march
(through the desert), and we were told it was a place of refuge for
travellers, against the predatory hordes who in/est the route of cara
vans." P. 17.

Description of Hormuz 63

CHAPTER XVI

OF THE CITY OF ORMUS, SITUATED ON AN ISLAND NOT FAR FROM
THE MAIN, IN THE SEA OF INDIA OF ITS COMMERCIAL IM
PORTANCE AND OF THE HOT WIND THAT BLOWS THERE.

AT the extremity of the plain before mentioned as extending
in a southern direction to the distance of five days journey,
there is a descent for about twenty miles, by a road that is
extremely dangerous, from the multitude of robbers, by whom
travellers are continually assaulted and plundered. 1 This
declivity conducts you to another plain, very beautiful in its
appearance, two days journey in extent, which is called the
plain of Ormus. Here you cross a number of fine streams,
and see a country covered with date-palms, amongst which
are found the francoline partridge, birds of the parrot kind,
and a variety of others unknown to our climate. At length
you reach the border of the ocean, where, upon an island, at
no great distance from the shore, stands a city named Ormus, 2

1 " In the mountains near Hormuz, it is said, there is much cultivated
land, and cattle, and many strong places. On every mountain there is
a chief, and they have an allowance from the sultan or sovereign; yet
they infest the roads of Kirman, and as far as the borders of Fars and
Sejestan. They commit their robberies on foot ; and it is said that their
race is of Arabian origin, and that they have accumulated vast wealth."
Sir W. Ouseley s transl. of Ibn Haukal, p. 140.

2 The original city of Ormuz, or Hormuz, was situated on the eastern
shore of the Gulf of Persia, in the province of Mogostan, and kingdom of
Kirman. Ibn Haukal, about the latter part of the tenth century, speaks
evidently of this city, on the main, when he says: " Hormuz is the
emporium of the merchants in Kirman, and their chief sea-port: it has
mosques and market-places, and the merchants reside in the suburbs."
P. 142. It was destroyed by one of the princes who reigned in Kirman,
of the Seljuk dynasty, according to some accounts, or the Moghul, accord
ing to others. The exact period is not satisfactorily ascertained. On
this occasion, the inhabitants removed, with their most valuable effects,
to the neighbouring island of Jerun, about thirteen geographical miles
from the former situation, where the foundation of the new city of
Hormuz, or Ormuz, destined to acquire still greater celebrity than the
former, was laid, although under the disadvantages of wanting water,
and of a soil impregnated with salt and sulphur. Abulfeda, who wrote
in the early part of the fourteenth century, and was a contemporary of
our author, describes the insular city. This island was taken from the
native princes, hi 1507, by the Portuguese, under the famous Alfonso
Albuquerque. In their hands," says Robertson, " Ormuz soon be
came the great mart from which the Persian empire, and all the pro
vinces of Asia to the west of it, were supplied with the productions of
India; and a city which they built on that barren island, destitute of
water, was rendered one of the chief seats of opulence, splendour, and

6 4

Travels of Marco Polo

whose port is frequented by traders from all parts of India>
who bring spices and drugs, precious stones, pearls, gold
tissues, elephants teeth, and various other articles of mer
chandize. These they dispose of to a different set of traders,
by whom they are dispersed throughout the world. This
city, indeed, is eminently commercial, has towns and castles
dependent upon it, and is esteemed the principal place in
the kingdom of Kierman. 1 Its ruler is named Rukmedin
Achomak, 2 who governs with absolute authority, but at the
same time acknowledges the king of Kierman 3 as his liege

luxury in the eastern world." Historical Disquisition, p. 140. From
them it was wrested, in 1622, by Shah Abbas, with the assistance of an
English squadron. Its fortifications, and other public structures, were
razed by that conqueror; and its commerce was transferred to a place
on the neighbouring coast, called Gambrun, to which he gave the name
of Bandar Abbassi. But in the meantime the discovery of the pas
sage from Europe by the Cape of Good Hope operated to divert the
general trade into a new channel, and that which was carried on by the
medium of ports in the Gulf of Persia rapidly declined. In the year 1765,
when Niebuhr visited these parts, the island on which Hormuz stood was
possessed by a person who had been in the naval service of Nadir Shah,
and the place was become quite insignificant.

1 By this must be meant, that Hormuz exceeded the other cities in
opulence, and perhaps in population; but Sirgan or Sirjan, also called
Kirman, was the capital of what we term the province of that name, and
there the sovereign resided.

2 In the list of sultans of Hormuz furnished by Texeira in his trans
lation of the annals of Turan-shah, we find one named Rukn-eddin Mah-
mud, who, although the dates are very imperfect, may be supposed to
have reigned about the period of our author s visit to the Gulf of Persia,
and to be the prince here called Rukmedin Achomak. The latter name
is evidently intended for Achmet, in which mode that of Ahmed has been
commonly though improperly written ; and it is well known that oriental
writers themselves frequently commit errors by confounding the three
names of Ahmed, Muhammed, and Mahmud.

3 No record of the kings of Kirman can be traced to a later date than
the year 1187, when Malik Dinar, of the race of Ali (a Seyed), expelled
the last of the Seljuk princes, and established himself on the throne;
but under Hulagu and his successors, who conquered Persia in the follow
ing century, and formed a Moghul dynasty, it must have become again a
province or fief of that empire, governed (as it is at the present day) by
a branch of the reigning family. De Barros (Decade ii. liv. ii. cap. 2)
informs us that a king or chief of Hormuz (in the district of Mogostan, on
the main,) obtained from his neighbour, the Malek of Kaez, a cession of
the island of Jerun, lying near his part of the coast, and established there
a naval force, for the purpose of commanding the straits; that in the
event of a war, provoked by this assumption of power, he became master
of the island of Kaez also; that the king of Persia (or, rather, the ruler
of Kirman), to whom the Malek had been used to pay tribute, marched
an army into Mogostan, and compelled the king of Hormuz to abandon
his city on the continent, and to take refuge in the island of Jerun, where
he founded the new city of Hormuz ; that upon his consenting to acknow
ledge vassalage and pay tribute (a share of the tolls on shipping) to the
Persian king, he was suffered to remain in possession of both islands; and
that in his new establishment he afterwards reigned thirty years. The

Description of Hormuz 65

lord. When any foreign merchant happens to die within his
jurisdiction, he confiscates the property, and deposits the
amount in his treasury. 1 During the summer season, the in
habitants do not remain in the city, on account of the exces
sive heat, which renders the air unwholesome, but retire to
their gardens along the shore or on the banks of the river,
where with a kind of ozier-work they construct huts over the
water. These they enclose with stakes, driven in the water
on the one side, and on the other upon the shore, making
a covering of leaves to shelter them from the sun. Here
they reside during the period in which there blows, every
day, from about the hour of nine until noon, a land-wind so
intensely hot as to impede respiration, and to occasion death
by suffocating the person exposed to it. None can escape
from its effects who are overtaken by it on the sandy plain. 2
As soon as the approach of this wind is perceived by the in
habitants, they immerge themselves to the chin in water, and
continue in that situation until it ceases to blow. 3 In proof

circumstances thus stated by De Barros agree in the material parts with
what our author relates at this place, and more pai tbularly in book iii.
chap, xliii. ; but the Portuguese historian refers all the transactions to
the single reign of Gordun-shah, who, he says, obtained the cession of
Jerun in 1273, an d who, according to Texeira s list, where he is named
Azz-eddin Gordan-shah, died in 1318. There is reason, however, to
believe that he gives an unfounded extension to this reign, and that the
earlier events spoken of belonged to those of Seif-eddin and Rukn-eddin,
who were probably the father and grandfather of that prince.

1 This odious right is known to have been exercised in Europe, in very
modern times, under the name of " droit d aubaine."

2 The hot wind known in Italy by the name of II Sirocco, and in Africa
by that of Harmatan, has been often described by travellers. In the
deserts of the south of Persia its effects are perhaps most violent. " The
winds in this desert," says Pottinger, " are often so scorching (during the
hot months from June to September) as to kill anything, either animal
or vegetable, that may be exposed to them, and the route by which I
travelled is then deemed impassable. This wind is distinguished every
where in Beloochistan, by the different names of Julot or Julo (the
flame), and Bade sumopm (the pestilential wind). So powerfully search
ing is its nature, that it has been known to kill camels, or other hardy
animals ; and its effects on the human frame were related to me, by those
who had been eye-witnesses of them, as the most dreadful that can be
imagined: the muscles of the unhappy sufferer become rigid and con
tracted; the skin shrivels; an agonizing sensation, as if the flesh was on
nre, pervades the whole frame, and in the last stage it cracks into deep
gashes, producing hemorrhage, that quickly ends this misery." P. 136.

3 For this practice of immersion we have the testimony of Pietro della
Valle, who was in the Gulf of Persia during the siege of Hormuz. and
visited the island immediately after its falling into the hands of the
Persians. Hormuz," he writes in his letter of the i8th January, 1623,

comunemente si stima la piu calda terra del mondo. . . . E mi
clicono, che in certo tempo delP anno, le genti di Hormuz non potrebbero
vivere, se non vi stessero qualche hora del giorno immersi fin alia gola

66 Travels of Marco Polo

of the extraordinary degree of this heat, Marco Polo says that
he happened to be in these parts when the following circum
stance occurred. The ruler of Ormus having neglected to pay
his tribute to the king of Kierman, the latter took the resolu
tion of enforcing it at the season when the principal inhabitants
reside out of the city, upon the main land, and for this pur
pose despatched a body of troops, consisting of sixteen hun
dred horse and five thousand foot, through the country of
Reobarle, in order to seize them by surprise. In consequence,
however, of their being misled by the guides, they failed to
arrive at the place intended before the approach of night., and
halted to take repose in a grove not far distant from Ormus;
but upon recommencing their march in the morning, they
were assailed by this hot wind, and were all suffocated; not
one escaping to carry the fatal intelligence to his master.
When the people of Ormus became acquainted with the event,
and proceeded to bury the carcases, in order that their stench
might not infect the air, they found them so baked by the
intenseness of the heat, that the limbs, upon being handled,
separated from the trunks, and it became necessary to dig the
graves close to the spot where the bodies lay. 1

nelT acqua, che, a questo fine, in tutte le case, tengono in alcune vasche,
fatte a posta." Although additional testimony be not wanting, I shall
give that of Schillinger, an intelligent Swabian traveller, who visited
these countries in the year 1700, and furnishes a good description of
Hormuz and Gambrun. " Wann die grosse Hitze einfallet," he says,
" legen sich die Innwohner den gantzen Tag durch in darzu bequemte
Wasser-troge, oder stehen in mit wasser angefullten Fassern biss an hals,
umb also zu ruhen, und sich der unleydentlichen Hitze zu erwehren."
-Persianische Reis, p. 279.

1 With regard to the state of the bodies, however extraordinary the
circumstances may appear, they are fully corroborated by Chardin,
who, speaking further of this wind, says, " Son effet le plus surprenant
n est pas meme la mort qu il cause; c est que les corps qui en meurent
sont comme dissous, sans perdre pourtant leur figure, ni meme leur
couleur, en sorte qu pn diroit qu ils ne sont qu endormis, quoiqu ils
soient morts, et que si on les prend quelque part, la piece demeure & la
main." He then proceeds to adduce some recent facts in proof of his
assertion. Tom. ii, p. 9, 4to.

The Shipping at Ormus 67

CHAPTER XVII

OF THE SHIPPING EMPLOYED AT ORMUS OF THE SEASON IN
WHICH THE FRUITS ARE PRODUCED AND OF THE MANNER
OF LIVING AND CUSTOMS OF THE INHABITANTS.

THE vessels built at Ormus are of the worst kind, and danger
ous for navigation, exposing the merchants and others who
make use of them to great hazards. Their defects proceed
from the circumstance of nails not being employed in the con
struction; the wood being of too hard a quality, and liable
to split or to crack like earthenware. When an attempt is
made to drive a nail, it rebounds, and is frequently broken.
The planks are bored, as carefully as possible, with an iron
auger, near the extremities; and wooden pins or trenails
being driven into them, they are in this manner fastened (to
the stem and stern). After this they are bound, or rather
sewed together, with a kind of rope-yarn stripped from the
husk of the Indian (cocoa) nuts, which are of a large size, and
covered with a fibrous stuff like horse-hair. This being
steeped in water until the softer parts putrefy, the threads or
strings remain clean, and of these they make twine for sewing
the planks, which lasts long under water. 1 Pitch is not used
for preserving the bottoms of vessels, but they are smeared
with an oil made from the fat of fish, and then caulked with
oakum. The vessel has no more than one mast, one helm,

1 We know little of the shipping employed in the Gulf of Persia before
the conquest of Hormuz by the Portuguese; and since that period the
influence and example of these and other Europeans have much changed
the system of Persian and Indian navigation; yet the account given by
our author corresponds in every essential particular with the kind of
vessel described by Niebuhr. Such also are the boats employed at the
present day on the coast of Coromandel, called chelingues by the French,
and masulah boats by the English, which are thus described by Le Gentil :
Les bateaux dans lesquels se passent ces barres, se nomment che
lingues; ilssont faits expres; ce sont des planches mises Tune au-dessus
de 1 autre, et cousues Tune & Pautre, avec du fil fait de Pecorce interieur
du cocotier (de la noix du coco); les coutures sont calfatees avec de
Petoupe faite de la meme ecorce, et enfoncee sans beaucoup de fagons avec
un mauvais couteau. Le fond de ces bateaux est plat et form6 comme
les bords; ces bateaux ne sont guere plus longs que larges, et il n entre
pas un seul clou dans leur construction." (Voyage, torn. i. p. 540.)
This twine, manufactured from the fibrous husk of the cocoa-nut (not
from the bark of the tree, as M. Le Gentil supposed), is well known in
India by the name of coire, and is worked into ropes for running-rigging
and cables.

68 Travels of Marco Polo

and one deck. 1 When she has taken in her lading it is
covered over with hides, and upon these hides they place the
horses which they carry to India. They have no iron anchors,
but in their stead employ another kind of ground-tackle; 2
the consequence of which is, that in bad weather, (and these
seas are very tempestuous,) they are frequently driven on
shore and lost.

The inhabitants of the place are of a dark colour, and are
Mahometans. They sow their wheat, rice, and other grain in
the month of November, and reap their harvest in March. 3
The fruits also they gather in that month, with the exception
of the dates, which are collected in May. Of these, with
other ingredients, they make a good kind of wine. 4 When it
is drunk, however, by persons not accustomed to the beverage,
it occasions an immediate flux; but upon their recovering
from its first effects, it proves beneficial to them, and con
tributes to render them fat. The food of the natives is
different from ours; for were they to eat wheaten bread and
flesh meat their health would be injured. They live chiefly
upon dates and salted fish, such as the thunnus, cepole (cepola
tania), and others which from experience they know to be
.wholesome. Excepting in marshy places, the soil of this
country is not covered with grass, in consequence of the ex
treme heat, which burns up everything. Upon the death of
men of rank, their wives loudly bewail them, once in the course
of each day, during four successive weeks; and there are also

1 It is to be observed that the numerous praws which cover the seas of
the further East, are steered, in general, with two helms or kamudis;
and that such vessels had recently been under the notice of our author
in his passage to the straits of Malacca.

2 Neither are the vessels of the Malays commonly provided with iron
anchors; which I presume to be what is meant by * ferri di sorzer,"
although the term is not to be met with either in the general or the marine
dictionaries. Their anchors are formed of strong and heavy wood, have
only one arm or fluke, and are sunk by means of heavy stones attached
to them.

3 We might not expect to read of wheat being cultivated in so hot a
climate, but the fact is well ascertained.

4 What has usually been termed palm- wine, or toddy, is a liquor ex
tracted from trees of the class of palms, by cutting off the shoot for
fructification, and applying to the wounded part a vessel into which the
liquor distils; but we read also of an inebriating liquor prepared from
ripe dates, by steeping them in warm water, until they undergo vinous
fermentation. Pottinger, speaking of the people of Mukran (adjoining
to the province of Kirman), says: " They likewise drink great quantities
of an intoxicating beverage, made from the fermented dates, which must
be exceedingly pernicious in its effects." (P. 306.) In the Anabasis of
Xenophon, this liquor is spoken of as having been met with by the Greeks
in the villages of Babylonia.

Return to Kierman 69

people to be found here who make such lamentations a pro
fession, and are paid for uttering them over the corpses of
persons to whom they are not related. 1

CHAPTER XVIII

OF THE COUNTRY TRAVELLED OVER UPON LEAVING ORMUS, AND
RETURNING TO KIERMAN BY A DIFFERENT ROUTE; AND OF
A BITTERNESS IN THE BREAD OCCASIONED BY THE QUALITY
OF THE WATER.

HAVING spoken of Ormus, I shall for the present defer treat
ing of India, intending to make it the subject of a separate
Book, and now return to Kierman in a northerly direction.
Leaving Ormus, therefore, and taking a different road to that
place, you enter upon a beautiful plain, producing in abun
dance every article of food; and birds are numerous, especi
ally partridges: but the bread, which is made from wheat
grown in the country, cannot be eaten by those who have not
learned to accommodate their palates to it, having a bitter
taste derived from the quality of .the waters, which are all
bitter and salsuginous. On every side you perceive warm,
sanative streams, applicable to the cure of cutaneous and
other bodily complaints. Dates and other fruits are in great
plenty.

CHAPTER XIX

OF THE DESERT COUNTRY BETWEEN KIERMAN AND KOBIAM,
AND OF THE BITTER QUALITY OF THE WATER.

UPON leaving Kierman and travelling three days, you reach
the borders of a desert extending to the distance of seven

1 These excessive lamentations, so common in the East, and not un
known in some parts of Europe, as well as the practice of hiring profes
sional mourners, have been often described by travellers. " Les femmes
sur tout," says Chardin, " s emportent aux exces de fureur et de desola
tion les plus outrez, qu elles entremelent de longues complaintes, de
recits tendres et touchans, et de doulloureuses apostrophes au cadavre
insensible." (Tom. ii. p. 385.) " It is usual," says Fryer, " to hire
people to lament; and the widow, once a moon, goes to the grave with
her acquaintance to repeat the doleful dirge." {Account of East India
and Persia, p. 94.) It may be observed, that in the early Latin and
other early texts the time of mourning is stated to be four years instead
of four weeks.

70 Travels of Marco Polo

days journey, at the end of which you arrive at Kobiam. 1
During the first three days (of these seven) but little water
is to be met with, and that little is impregnated with salt,
green as grass, and so nauseous that none can use it as drink.
Should even a drop of it be swallowed, frequent calls of nature
will be occasioned; and the effect is the same from eating a
grain of the salt made from this water. 2 In consequence of
this, persons who travel over the desert are obliged to carry
a provision of water along with them. The cattle, however,
are compelled by thirst to drink such as they find, and a flux
immediately ensues. In the course of these three days not
one habitation is to be seen. The whole is arid and desolate.
Cattle are not found there, because there is no subsistence
for them. 3 On the fourth day you come to a river of fresh
water, but which has its channel for the most part under
ground. In some parts however there are abrupt openings,
caused by the force of the current, through which the stream

1 Kobiam (Gobiam in the early Latin text, Kobinam in others) is the
Kabis of D Anville, the Chabis of Edrisi, the Khebis, Khebeis, and
Khubeis of Ibn Haukal, and the Khubees of Ppttinger. " Khebeis,"
says Ibn Haukal, " is a town on the borders of this desert, with running
water and date- trees. From that to Durak is one merhileh ; and during
this stage, as far as the eye can reach, everything wears the appearance
of ruin and desolation; for there is not any kind of water." (Ouseley s
translation, p. 199.) It formerly flourished," says Pottinger, " and
was the residence of a Beglerbeg on the part of the chief of Seistan, but
now is a miserable decayed place, and the inhabitants are notorious
robbers and outcasts, who subsist by infesting the highways of Khorasan
and Persia, and plundering karawans." P. 229.

a The salt springs and plains incrusted with salt, which Pottinger met
with in Kirman and the adjacent countries, are thus spoken of: " We
crossed a river of liquid salt, so deep as to take my horse to the knees;
the surface of the plain for several hundred yards on each side was entirely
hid by a thick incrustation of white salt, resembling a fall of frozen snow,
that crackled under the horse s hoofs." (P. 237.) The whole of these
mountains (of Kohistan) abound with mineral productions: in several
places there are brooks of liquid salt, and pools of water covered with a
scum similar to the naphtha, or bitumen, found near the Caspian sea."
(P. 312.) On the high road from Kelat to Kutch Gundava there is a
range of hills, from which a species of salt, perfectly red in its colour, is
extracted, that possesses very great aperient qualities. Sulphur and
alum are to be had at the same place." (P. 323.) It would seem from
its effects that the salt of these deserts contains sulphate of magnesia,
and the green colour noticed by our author may proceed from a mixture
of sulphate of iron.

3 " On the east," says Ibn Haukal, the desert of Khorasan partly
borders the province of Makran and partly Seistan; to the south it has
Kirman and Fars, and part of the borders of Isfahan. . . . This
desert is almost totally uninhabited and waste. . . . It is the haunt
of robbers and thieves, and without a guide it is very difficult to find the
way through it, and one can only go by the well-known paths."
192 194.

The Town of Kobiam 71

becomes visible for a short space, and water is to be had in
abundance. Here the wearied traveller stops to refresh him
self and his cattle after the fatigues of the preceding journey. 1
The circumstances of the latter three days resemble those of
the former, and conduct him at length to the town of Kobiam.

CHAPTER XX

OF THE TOWN OF KOBIAM, AND ITS MANUFACTURES.

KOBIAM is a large town, the inhabitants of which observe
the law of Mahomet. They have plenty of iron, accarum,
and andanicum. Here they make mirrors of highly polished
steel, of a large size and very handsome. Much antimony
or zinc is found in the country, and they procure tutty which
makes an excellent collyrium, together with spodium, by the
following process. They take the crude ore from a vein that
is known to yield such as is fit for the purpose, and put it
into a heated furnace. Over the furnace they place an iron
grating formed of small bars set close together. The smoke
or vapour ascending from the ore in burning attaches itself to
the bars, and as it cools becomes hard. This is the tutty;
whilst the gross and heavy part, which does not ascend, but
remains as a cinder in the furnace, becomes the spodium. 2

1 This place of refreshment may perhaps be Shur, which Ibn Haukal
terms a stream of water in the desert, on the road which begins from the
Kirman side. In another place he says it is one day s journey from
Durak, (mentioned in note 1 , p. 70,) and describes it as a broad water
course of rain-water. No notice, however, is there taken of its passing
under ground; and the identity, therefore, is not to be insisted upon;
but the subterraneous passage of rivers is not very uncommon.

2 In Note*, p. 56, a reason was assigned for supposing that by the word
andanico was meant antimony, which is stated by Chardin and others to
be found in the quarter of Persia here spoken of; but from the process
of making tutty and spodium so particularly described in this place, we
should be led to infer that lapis calaminaris, or zinc, is the mineral to
which our author gives that name, or rather, the name of which andanico
is the corruption. How far the qualities of antimony and of zinc may
render them liable to be mistaken for each other, I do not pretend to
judge, but upon this point there seems to exist a degree of uncertainty
that may excuse our author, if he supposed that the former, instead of
the latter, was employed in the manufacture of tutia or tutty. " The
argillaceous earth," says Bontius, " of which tutty is made, is found in
great quantities in the province of Persia called Kirmon, as I have often
been told by Persian and Armenian merchants." (Account of Diseases,

72 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXI

OF THE JOURNEY FROM KOBIAM TO THE PROVINCE OF TIMO-
CHAIN ON THE NORTHERN CONFINES OF PERSIA AND OF
A PARTICULAR SPECIES OF TREE.

LEAVING Kobiam you proceed over a desert of eight days*
journey exposed to great drought; neither fruits nor any
kind of trees are met with, and what water is found has a
bitter taste. Travellers are therefore obliged to carry with
them so much as may be necessary for their sustenance.
Their cattle are constrained by thirst to drink such as the
desert affords, which their owners endeavour to render palat
able to them by mixing it with flour. At the end of eight
days you reach the province of Timochain, situated towards
the north, on the borders of Persia, in which are many towns
and strong places. 1 There is here an extensive plain remark
able for the production of a species of tree called the tree of
the sun, and by Christians arbor secco, the dry or fruitless tree.
Its nature and qualities are these: It is lofty, with a large
stem, having its leaves green on the upper surface, but white
or glaucous on the under. It produces husks or capsules

Natural Hist. etc. of the East Indies, chap. xiii. p. 180.) Pottinger, in
the journal of his travels through Beloochistan towards Kirman, speaks
of a caravansery " called Soormu-sing, or the stone of antimony, a name
which it derives from the vast quantities of that mineral to be collected
in the vicinity." (P. 38.) That the collyrium so much in use amongst
the eastern people, called surmeh by the Persians, and anjan or unjun by
the natives of Hindustan, has tutty for its basis, will not, I suppose, be
disputed: but in the Persian and Hindustani dictionaries it will be found
that surmeh and unjan are likewise the terms for antimony. Whatever
may be the proper application of the names, he is at least substantially
correct in the fact that tutty, employed as a collyrium or ophthalmic
unguent, is prepared from a mineral substance found in the province of
Kirman.

1 It has already been shown that the Timocain or Timochain of our
text is no other than Damaghan, a place of considerable importance on
the north-eastern confines of Persia, having the ancient Hyrcania, from
which it is separated by a chain of mountains, to the north, the province
of Khorasan to the east, and the small province of Kumis, of which it is
the capital, together with the salt-desert, to the south. In this neigh
bourhood it was that Ghazan the son of Arghun, heir to the throne of
Persia, then occupied by his uncle, was stationed with an army to guard
the important pass of Khowar or the Caspian Straits, at the period of
the arrival of the Polo family from China; and thither they were directed
to proceed, in order to deliver into his hands their precious charge, a
princess of the house of KublaT.

The Old Man of the Mountain

73

like those in which the chestnut is enclosed, but these con
tain no fruit. The wood is solid and strong, and of a yellow
colour resembling the box. 1 There is no other species of tree
near it for the space of a hundred miles, excepting in one
quarter, where trees are found within the distance of about
ten miles. It is reported by the inhabitants of this district
that a battle was fought there between Alexander, king of
Macedonia, and Darius. 2 The towns are well supplied with
every necessary and convenience of life, the climate being
temperate and not subject to extremes either of heat or cold. 3
The people are of the Mahometan religion. They are in
general a handsome race, especially the women, who, in my
opinion, are the most beautiful in the world.

CHAPTER XXII

OF THE OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN OF HIS PALACE AND
GARDENS OF HIS CAPTURE AND HIS DEATH.

HAVING spoken of this country, mention shall now be made of
the old man of the mountain. 4 The district in which his

1 This tree, to which the name of arbor secco was applied, would seem
to be a species of fagus, and to partake of the character of the chestnut.
But from various passages of later writers, we shall be justified in con
sidering it was intended for a variety of the platanus, or plane-tree. The
epithet of secco seems to imply nothing more than this: that when the
form of the husk promises an edible nut, the stranger who gathers it is
disappointed on finding no perceptible contents, or only a dry and taste
less seed.

8 The last battle fought between Alexander and Darius was at Arbela
(Arbil), in Kurdistan, not far from the Tigris, but in the subsequent
operations, the vanquished king of Persia was pursued from Ecbatana
(Ramadan), through the Caspian Straits or pass of Khowar, which Alex
ander s troops penetrated without opposition, into the province of Comi-
sene (Kumis), of which Hecatompylos (supposed to be Damaghan) was
the capital ; nor did the pursuit cease until the unfortunate monarch was
murdered by his own subjects not far from the latter city. Alexander
himself advanced by a nearer way, but across a desert entirely destitute
of water. Traditions respecting the Macedonian conqueror abound in
this part of the country.

1 The mildness of the climate, and at the same tune its extreme
unhealthiness, along the southern shore of the Caspian, is noticed by
Olearius, Chardin, and other travellers; but the district about Damaghan,
here spoken of, is separated by a chain of mountains from the swampy
tract between Asterabad and Ferhabad (the places chiefly visited by
Europeans during the reign of Shah Abbas, who frequently held his
court in them), and occupies a much more elevated region.

4 The appellation so well known in the histories of the crusades, of
" Old man of the mountain," is an injudicious version of the Arabic title

74 Travels of Marco Polo

residence lay obtained the name of Mulehet, signifying in the
language of the Saracens, the place of heretics, and his people
that of Mulehetites, 1 or holders of heretical tenets; as we
apply the term of Patharini to certain heretics amongst
Christians. 2 The following account of this chief, Marco Polo
testifies to having heard from sundry persons. He was named
Alo-eddin, 3 and his religion was that of Mahomet. In a
beautiful valley enclosed between two lofty mountains, he
had formed a luxurious garden, stored with every delicious

Sheikh al Jebal, signifying " chief of the mountainous region." But as
the word sheikh, like signer, and some other European terms, bears the
meaning of " elder," as well as of " lord or chief," a choice of interpreta
tions was offered, and the less appropriate adopted. The places where
this personage, who was the head of a religious or fanatical sect, exercised
the rights of sovereignty, were the castles of Alamut, Lamsir, Kirdkuh,
and Maimun-diz, and the district of Rudbar; all situated within the
limits of that province which the Persians name Kuhestan, and the
Arabians Al-jebal. " La position d Alamout," says De Sacy, in his
M6moire sur la Dynastie des Assassins et sur 1 Origine de leur Nom, "situee
au milieu d un pays de montagnes, fit appeler le prince qui y regnoit
scheikh-aldjebal, c est-a-dire, le scheikh ou prince des montagnes, et
r6quivoque du mot scheikh, qui signifie egalement vieillard et prince, a
donn6 lieu aux historiens des croisades et au celebre voyageur Marc Pol,
de le nommer le Vieux de la montagne."

1 This correct application of the Arabic term, Mulehet or Mulched, is
one of the many unquestionable proofs of the genuineness of our author s
relation, and would De sufficient to remove the doubts of any learned and
candid inquirers on the subject of his acquaintance with oriental matters.
Under the article Melahedah, in the Bibliotheque Orientale of D Herbelot,
we read: " C est le pluriel de Melhed, qui signifie un impie > un homme
sans religion. Melahedah Kuhestan: Les Impies de la Montagne.
C est ainsi que sont appelles les Isrnaelians qui ont regne dans I Iran, et
particulierement dans la partie montueuse de la Perse." This oppro
brious epithet was bestowed by the orthodox Mussulmans upon the
fanatic sect of Ismaelians, Batenians, or, as they style themselves, Refik,
or Friends, who, under the influence of an adventurer named Hasan ben
Sabbah, began to flourish in Persia about the year 1090, during the reign
of Malik Shah Jelal-eddin, third sovereign of the Seljukian dynasty.
With respect to the two grand divisions of the Mussulman political faith,
they professed themselves to belong to the Shiahs or Rafedhi (as they are
termed by their adversaries), who maintain the legitimate right to the
khalifat in the descendants of Ali. Their particular tenets appear to
have been connected with those of the more ancient Karmats and modern
Wahabis.

1 The Paterini are more generally known by the name of Waldenses,
Albigenses, and amongst the French writers by that of Patalins or
Patelins.

8 Ala-eddin, the Ismaelian prince, was killed, after a long reign, about
the end of the year 1255, and was succeeded by Rukn-eddin ben Ala-
eddin, who reigned only one year before the destruction of his power
under the circumstances our author proceeds to relate. He is correct
therefore in attributing the actions which roused the indignation of the
world to the former; but he does not appear to have been aware that it
was the son against whom the attack of the Moghuls was directed, although
the expedition must have been undertaken against Ala-eddin, the father.

The Old Man of the Mountain- 75

fruit and every fragrant shrub that could be procured.
Palaces of various sizes and forms were erected in different
parts of the grounds, ornamented with works in gold, with
paintings, and with furniture of rich silks. By means of small
conduits contrived in these buildings, streams of wine, milk,
honey, and some of pure water, were seen to flow in every
direction. The inhabitants of these palaces were elegant and
beautiful damsels, accomplished in the arts of singing, play
ing upon all sorts of musical instruments, dancing, and especi
ally those of dalliance and amorous allurement. Clothed in
rich dresses they were seen continually sporting and amusing
themselves in the garden and pavilions, their female guardians
being confined within doors and never suffered to appear.
The object which the chief had in view in forming a garden
of this fascinating kind, was this : that Mahomet having pro
mised to those who should obey his will the enjoyments of
Paradise, where every species of sensual gratification should
be found, in the society of beautiful nymphs, he was desirous
of its being understood by his followers that he also was a
prophet and the compeer of Mahomet, and had the power of
admitting to Paradise such as he should choose to favour. In
order that none without his licence might find their way into
this delicious valley, he caused a strong and inexpugnable
castle to be erected at the opening of it, through which the
entry was by a secret passage. At his court, likewise, this
chief entertained a number of youths, from the age of twelve
to twenty years, selected from the inhabitants of the surround
ing mountains, who showed a disposition for martial exer
cises, and appeared to possess the quality of daring courage.
To them he was in the daily practice of discoursing on the sub
ject of the paradise announced by the prophet, and of his own
power of granting admission; and at certain times he caused
opium to be administered to ten or a dozen of the youths ; and
when half dead with sleep he had them conveyed to the several
apartments of the palaces in the garden. Upon awakening
from the state of lethargy, their senses were struck with all
the delightful objects that have been described, and each per
ceived himself surrounded by lovely damsels, singing, playing,
and attracting his regards by the most fascinating caresses,
serving him also with delicate viands and exquisite wines;
until intoxicated with excess of enjoyment amidst actual
rivulets of milk and wine, he believed himself assuredly in
Paradise, and felt an unwillingness to relinquish its delights.

7 6

Travels of Marco Polo

When four or five days had thus been passed, they were
thrown once more into a state of somnolency, and carried out of
the garden. Upon their being introduced to his presence, and
questioned by him as to where they had been, their answer
was, In Paradise, through the favour of your highness: "
and then before the whole court, who listened to them with
eager curiosity and astonishment, they gave a circumstantial
account of the scenes to which they had been witnesses. The
chief thereupon addressing them, said: " We have the assur
ances of our prophet that he who defends his lord shall inherit
Paradise, and if you show yourselves devoted to the obedience
of my orders, that happy lot awaits you." Animated to
enthusiasm by words of this nature, all deemed themselves
happy to receive the commands of their master, and were
forward to die in his service. 1 The consequence of this
system was, that when any of the neighbouring princes, or
others, gave umbrage to this chief, they were put to death by
these his disciplined assassins; none of whom felt terror at
the risk of losing their own lives, which they held in little
estimation, provided they could execute their master s will.
On this account his tyranny became the subject of dread in
all the surrounding countries. He had also constituted two
deputies or representatives of himself, of whom one had his
residence in the vicinity of Damascus, and the other in Kur
distan; 2 and these pursued the plan he had established for
training their young dependants. Thus there was no person,
however powerful, who, having become exposed to the enmity
of the old man of the mountain, could escape assassination.
His territory being situated within the dominions of Ulati
(Hulagu), the brother of the grand khan (Mangu), that prince
had information of his atrocious practices, as above related,
as well as of his employing people to rob travellers in their

1 This story was the current belief of the people of Asia, who seem to
have thought it necessary to assign extraordinary causes for an effect so
surprising as that of the implicit devotion of these religious enthusiasts
to the arbitrary will of their master. The name of Assassins, given to
these people by other writers, is not found in Marco Polo.

* I cannot discover any traces of an establishment of Ismaelians, under
a regular chief, in Kurdistan, although dais or missionaries of the sect
were frequently employed there; but of the existence of the subordinate
government in Syria here mentioned we have ample testimony. (See
De Sacy, Memoire, p. 6, and De Guignes, Hist. gen. des Huns, liv. vi.
p. 342.) I am the more particular in citing these authorities, to prove, in
confirmation of what Marco Polo asserts, that the Persian was the original
government, although the Syrian branch became better known in Europe,
and to its sheikhs the title of " old man of the mountain " seems to have
been generally if not exclusively applied.

The Road to Sapurgan 77

passage through his country, and in the year 1262 sent one
of his armies to besiege this chief in his castle. It proved,,
however, so capable of defence, that for three years no im
pression could be made upon it; until at length he was forced
to surrender from the want of provisions, and being made
prisoner was put to death. His castle was dismantled, and
his garden of Paradise destroyed. 1 And from that time there
has been no old man of the mountain.

CHAPTER XXIII

OF A FERTILE PLAIN OF SIX DAYS JOURNEY, SUCCEEDED BY A
DESERT OF EIGHT, TO BE PASSED IN THE WAY TO THE CITY
OF SAPURGAN OF THE EXCELLENT MELONS PRODUCED
THERE AND OF THE CITY OF BALACH.

LEAVING this castle, the road leads over a spacious plain,
and then through a country diversified with hill and dale,
where there is herbage and pasture, as well as fruits in great
abundance, by which the army of Ulau was enabled to remain
so long upon the ground. This country extends to the dis
tance of full six days journey. It contains many cities and
fortified places, 2 and the inhabitants are of the Mahometan

1 The circumstances attending the destruction of this sect, which, as
we have seen in the preceding notes, had erected itself into an indepen
dent sovereignty, are noticed by Abu lfaraj, Hist. Dynast, p. 330, as well
as by others amongst the Oriental writers, who record the actions of the
descendants of Jengiz-khan, but by none with so much historical detail
as by Mirkhond, whose account of the dynasty of the Ismaelians of Persia
was translated and published at Paris, together with the original text, by
M. Jourdain. With regard to the date of 1262, which our author assigns
to the commencement of these operations, there must be a mistake of
about six years, as all the historians agree that Hulagu s expedition
against the Mulhedites was prior to that against Baghdad, and the latter
is known with sufficient certainty to have fallen in the year 1258. We
have, at the same time, the circumstantial authority of Mirkhond for the
reduction of the castles of the former in the years 1256 and 1257. This
and similar inaccuracies of Marco Polo may be excused on the ground
that the events having happened many years before the commencement
of his travels, he must have depended upon the information of others for
their dates, which may have been expressed according to modes of reckon
ing that required a calculation to reduce them to the Christian era.

a From Damaghan his course was nearly east, or in the direction of
Balkh, and seems to have lain through Jan-Jerm and Nishapur towards
Meru-ar-rud; but the number of days journeys is evidently too small,
unless we can suppose him to have travelled at double the rate of the
ordinary caravans, or full forty miles per day; which is less probable
than that an omission of some stages has been made in the narrative.

78 Travels of Marco Polo

religion. A desert then commences, extending forty or fifty
miles/ where there is no water; and it is necessary that the
traveller should make provision of this article at his outset.
As the cattle find no drink until this desert is passed, the
greatest expedition is necessary, that they may reach a water
ing place. At the end of the sixth day s journey, 2 he arrives
at a town named Sapurgan, 3 which is plentifully supplied
with every kind of provision, and is particularly celebrated for
producing the best melons in the world. These are preserved
in the following manner. They are cut spirally, in thin slices,
as the pumpkin with us, and after they have been dried in the
sun, are sent, in large quantities, for sale, to the neighbouring
countries; where they are eagerly sought for, being sweet as
honey. 4 Game is also in plenty there, both of beasts and birds.
Leaving this place, we shall now speak of another named
Balach; a large and magnificent city. 5 It was formerly still
more considerable, but has sustained much injury from the
Tartars, who in their frequent attacks have partly demolished
its buildings. It contained many palaces constructed of
marble, and spacious squares, still visible, although in a ruin
ous state. 6 It was in this city, according to the report of

1 The country of Khorasan, through which the route, wnetner from
Alamut or from Damaghan to the place next mentioned must have lain,
is said to be in general level, intersected with sandy deserts and irregular
ridges of lofty mountains.

2 It is quite necessary to the sense that this should mean six days
journey from the eastern side of the desert just mentioned.

* Of the identity of this place, which at first might seem to be intended
for Nishapur, there can be no doubt. Cheburgan, ville de Corassane,
pres du Gihon et de Bale," says Petis de la Croix, the translator of Shere-
feddin, " a 100 degres de long, et 36 45 de latitude." In the tables oi
Nassir-eddin, from which the above situation is taken, it is named Ash-
burkan; in D Anville s map, Ashburgan; in Strathlenberg s, Chaburga;
in Macdonald Kinneir s, Subbergan; and in Elphinstone s, Shibbergaun.
By the last writer it is spoken of as a dependency of the government oi
Balkh.

4 The province of Khorasan is celebrated by all the eastern writers for
the excellence of its fruits, and the importance here given to its melons
is fully supported by the authority of Chardin. (Tom. ii. p. 19, 4to.)
On the subject of the melon du Khorasan," see also Relation de
TEgypte, notes, p. 126.

6 Balach or Balkh, the " Bactra regia " of Ptolemy, which gave name
to the province of Bactriana, of which it was the capital, is situated to
wards the heads of the Oxus, in the north-eastern extremity of Khorasan.
It is one of the four royal cities of that province, and has been the seat
of government perhaps more frequently even than Nishapur, Herat, or
Meru-shahjan.

Jengiz-khan, who took this city by assault in 1221, from the Khoraz-
mians, caused ah the inhabitants to be massacred (as we are told by his
historian, Abu lghazi) and the walls to be razed to their foundation. In
1369 it was taken from the descendants of that conqueror by Tamerlane,

Desolation of Balkh 79

the inhabitants, that Alexander took to wife the daughter of
king Darius. 1 The Mahometan religion prevails here also. 2
The dominion of the lord of the Eastern Tartars extends to this
place; and to it the limits of the Persian empire extend, in a
north-eastern direction. 3 Upon leaving Balach and holding
the same course for two days, you traverse a country that is
destitute of every sign of habitation, the people having all fled
to strong places in the mountains, in order to secure them
selves against the predatory attacks of lawless marauders, by
whom these districts are overrun. Here are extensive waters,
and game of various kinds. Lions are also found in these
parts, 4 very large and numerous. Provisions, however, are
scarce in the hilly tract passed during these two days, and the
traveller must carry with him food sufficient both for himself
and his cattle.

whose family possessed it until they were obliged to give place to the
Uzbek Tartars, between whom and the Persians it was subsequently
the subject of perpetual contention. " All the Asiatics," Elphinstone
observes, " are impressed with an idea of its being the oldest city in the
world. . . . This ancient metropolis is now reduced to insignificance.
Its ruins still cover a great extent, and are surrounded with a wall, but
only one corner is inhabitated." (P. 464.) The houses are described
by Macdonald Kinneir as being of brick, and the palace of the khan, an
extensive building, nearly all of marble, brought from quarries in the
neighbouring mountains.

1 The Persian marriages of Alexander with Barsine or Statira, the
daughtei of Darius, and with Parisatis, the daughter of Ochus, are gener
ally understood to have taken place at Susa.

* Abu lghazi informs us that at the time of the destruction of Balkh by
Jengiz-khan, it contained no fewer than 12,000 mosques; which, although
an exaggeration, shows at least the prevalence of Islamism in that city.

3 Khorasan being so frequently subject to Persian dominion, and
particularly under the descendants of Hulagu, who possessed it at the
time our author travelled there, it was natural for him to consider it as
an integral part of the Persian empire. Balkh is correctly stated as
lying on the north-eastern frontier. The Latin says, " usque ad istam
terrain durat dominium domini de Levante."

4 Chardin enumerates lions amongst the wild animals of Persia, and
especially in the frontier provinces. Par tout ou il y a des bois," he
says, " cornme en Hircanie et en Curdistan, il y a beaucoup de betes sau-
vages, des lions, des ours, des tigres, des leopards, des porc-epy, et des
sangliers." Tom. ii. p. 29, 4to.

80 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXIV

OF THE CASTLE NAMED THAIKAN OF THE MANNERS OF THE
INHABITANTS AND OF SALT-HILLS.

AT the end of these two days journey you reach a castle named
Thaikan, where a great market for corn is held, it being situated
in a fine and fruitful country. The hills that lie to the south
of it are large and lofty. 1 They all consist of white salt, ex*
tremely hard, with which the people, to the distance of thirty
days journey round, come to provide themselves, for it is
esteemed the purest that is found in the world; but it is at the
same time so hard that it cannot be detached otherwise than
with iron instruments. 2 The quantity is so great that all the
countries of the earth might be supplied from thence. Other
hills produce almonds and pistachio nuts, 3 in which articles
the natives carry on a considerable trade. Leaving Thaikan

1 This account of Thaikan or Taikan (written Caycam in the manu
scripts, and Taitham in the Italian epitomes), which is situated amongst
the sources of the Oxus, will be found remarkably correct. " Of Tok-
harestan," says Ibn Haukal, " the largest city (t&wn) is Taikan, situated
on a plain in the vicinity of mountains. It is watered by a considerable
river, and has many orchards and gardens." (P. 224.) " From Taikan
to Badakshan is seven days journey." (P. 230.) See also Abulfeda.
These authors clearly distinguish it from a place named Taikan, lying
south-west of Balkh, near Meru-er-rud, and situated on a steep rock;
but Edrisi gives to the former the name of Taikan, and has been followed
by modern geographers, and particularly by D Anville, in whose map
both places are written with the same letters. " Their course," says
Lieut. Macartney, speaking of the streams of the Oxus, near whose junc
tion Talikan (or Taikan) stands, " is through a mountainous country,
but containing many excessively rich and fertile valleys, producing all
kinds of fruit in the greatest abundance." Elphinstone s Account of
Caubul, Appendix, p. 650.

8 This kind of hard fossil salt is found in several parts, and is thus de
scribed by Chardin: " Dans la Medie et a Ispahan le sel se tire des mines,
et on le transporte par gros quartiers, comme la pierre de taille. II est
si dure en des endroits, comme dans la Caramanie deserte (Kirman)
qu on en employe les pierres dans la construction des maisons des pauvres
gens." (Tom. ii. p. 23.) " The road beyond," says Elphinstone, speak
ing of a place in the country of the Afghans, " was cut out of solid salt,
at the foot of cliffs of that mineral, in some places more than one hundred
feet high above the river. The salt is hard, clear, and almost pure."
Account of Caubul, p. 37.

3 Both almonds and pistachio nuts are enumerated by Chardin amongst
the productions of the northern and eastern parts of Persia. " II croit
cles pistaches a Casbin et aux environs. ... Us ont de plus les
amandes, les noisettes, etc. Le plus grand transport de fruits se fait de
Yesde." Tom. ii. p. 21.

The Town of Scassem 8 1

*

and travelling three days, still in a north-east direction, you
pass through a well inhabited country, very beautiful, and
abounding in fruit, corn, and vines. The people are Mahome
tans, and are blood-thirsty and treacherous. They are given
also to debauchery, and to excess in drink, to which the excel
lence of their sweet wine encourages them. 1 On their heads
they wear nothing but a cord, about ten spans in length, with
which they bind them round. They are keen sportsmen, and
take many wild animals, wearing no other clothing than the
skins of the beasts they kill, of which materials their shoes
also are made. They are all taught to prepare the skins.

CHAPTER XXV

OF THE TOWN OF SCASSEM, AND OF THE PORCUPINES FOUND

THERE.

DURING a journey of three days there are cities and many
castles, and at the end of that distance you reach a town named
Scassem, 2 governed by a chief whose title is equivalent to

1 This country has since been overrun by a different race of people.
" The Uzbeks," says Elphinstone, " first crossed the Jaxartes about the
beginning of the sixteenth century, and pouring on the possessions of
the descendants of Tamerlane," who were themselves invaders, " soon
drove them from Bokhaura, Khoarizm, and Ferghauna, and spread
terror and dismay to the remotest parts of their extended empire. They
now possess besides Bulkh (Balkh), the kingdoms of Khoarizm (or Or-
gunge), Bokhaura and Ferghauna, and perhaps some other little countries
on this side of Beloot Taugh. I am told that they are to be found beyond
Beloot Taugh, and as far east as Khoten at least; but of this I cannot
speak with confidence. They belong to that great division of the human
race which is known in Asia by the name of Toork^and which, with the
Moghuls and Manshoors, compose what we call the l artar nation. Each
of these divisions has its separate language, and that of the Toorks is
widely diffused throughout the west of Asia." Account of Caubul,
p. 465.

2 This name, which in the Latin texts as well as in that of Ramusio is
Scassem, and in the Italian epitomes Echasem, is evidently the Keshem
of D Anville s map, and the Kishm-abad of Elphinstone s, situated near
the Ghori river which falls into the Oxus, and somewhat to the eastward
of the meridian of Kabul or Caubul. Ibn Haukal, who describes it
immediately after speaking of Taikan, and before he enters upon Badakh-
shan, names it Khesh, and says it is " the largest town in this mountain
ous country." J. R. Forster (Voyages in the North, p. 125) supposes
Scassem to be Al-shash, on the river Sirr or Jaxartes, but against all pro
bability, considering its vast distance from the last mentioned place;
whilst Keshern or Kishm is not only in the vicinity, but in the direct route
to that which is next described.

82 Travels of Marco Polo

that of our barons or counts; and amongst the mountains he
possesses other towns and strong places. Through the midst
of this town runs a river of tolerable size. Here are found
porcupines, which roll themselves up when the hunters set
their dogs at them, and with great fury shoot out the quills
or spines with which their skins are furnished, wounding both
men and dogs. The people of this country have their pecu
liar language. The herdsmen who attend the cattle have
their habitations amongst the hills, in caverns they form for
themselves ; nor is this a difficult operation, the hills consisting,
not of stone, but only of clay. Upon departing from this place
you travel for three days without seeing any kind of building,
or meeting with any of the necessaries required by a traveller,
excepting water; but for the horses there is sufficient pasture.
You are therefore obliged to carry with you every article for
which there may be occasion on the road. At the end of the
third day you arrive at the province of Balashan. 1

CHAPTER XXVI

OF THE PROVINCE OF BALASHAN OF THE PRECIOUS STONES
FOUND THERE AND WHICH BECOME THE PROPERTY OF THE
KING OF THE HORSES AND THE FALCONS OF THE COUNTRY
OF THE SALUBRIOUS AIR OF THE MOUNTAINS AND OF
THE DRESS WITH WHICH THE WOMEN ADORN THEIR PERSONS.

IN the province of Balashan, the people are Mahometans,
and have their peculiar language. It is an extensive kingdom,
being in length full twelve days journey, and is governed by
princes in hereditary succession, who are all descended from
Alexander, by the daughter of Darius, king of the Persians.

1 This place is unquestionably Badakhshan, as the name is correctly
written by Ibn Haukal and other geographers, although often pro
nounced Balakhshan. By D Herbelot its situation is thus described:
" Badakschian et Balakhschian, pays qui fait une partie de la province
de Thokharestan, et qui s etend vers la tete du fleuve Gihon ou Oxus,
par lequel il est borne du cote du levant et du septentrion." Budukh-
shaun," says Elphinstone, in his Account of Caubul, " though an exten
sive country, seems to be but one great valley running up from the pro
vince of Bulkh (Balkh) to Beloot Taugh, between the islands connected
with the Pamere and the range of Hindoo Koosh." P. 628.

The Province of Balashan 8 3

All these have borne the title in the Saracenic tongue of Zul-
karnen, being equivalent to Alexander. 1 In this country are
found the precious stones called balass rubies, of fine quality
and great value, so called from the name of the province. 2
They are imbedded in the high mountains, but are searched
for only in one, named Sikinan. 3 In this the king causes
mines to be worked, in the same manner as for gold or silver;
and through this channel alone they are obtained; no person
daring under pain of death, to make an excavation for the
purpose, unless as a special favour he obtains his majesty s

1 Abu lfazl, speaking of the districts of Sewad and Bijore, which he
describes as consisting of hills and wilds, and inhabited by the tribe of
Yousef Zy, proceeds to say: " In the time of Mirza Ulugh Beg (1450),
the tribe of Sultan, who assert themselves to be the descendants of the
daughter of Sultan Secunder Zulkernain, came from Cabul, and possessed
themselves of this country. They say that Secunder left treasure in
Cabul under the care of some of his relations; and some of their descen
dants, who carry their genealogical table in their hands, now dwell in the
mountainous parts." (Ayin Akbari, vol. ii. p. 195.) This filiation is
also noticed by Lieut. Macartney, who says in his Memoir: " The king
of Derwauz (near the sources of the Oxus) claims his descent from Alex
ander the Great, and his pretensions are admitted by all his neighbours."
(Account of Caubul, App. p. 628.) It is almost unnecessary to observe
that the word zul -karnein signifies " having horns," and that it was
given by the orientals to Alexander, whom they name Sekunder, from
the appearance of his head on the Greek coins, which long circulated,
and were afterwards initated, in Persia.

a Every writer who has treated of this country, mentions its two pro
ductions, the balass ruby (classed by the orientals as a species of hyacinth)
and the lapis lazuli. " Badakhshan," says Ibn Haukal, " produces the
ruby (ladl), and lapis lazuli (lajawa-rd). The mines are in the mountains."
(P. 225.) " C est dans ses mpntagnes," says D Herbelot, " que se trouve
la mine des rubis que les orientaux appellent Badakhschiani et Balakh-
schiani, et que nous nommons rubis balays." " The part of Beloot
Taugh within Budukhshaun," says Elphinstone, " produces iron, salt,
and sulphur, as well as abundance of lapis lazuli; but the celebrated
mines of rubies, which occasion Budukhshaun to be so often alluded to
by the Persian poets, are situated in the lower hills near the Oxus. They
are not now wrought." P. 629.

* It may be thought a vain attempt to find corresponding authority
for the name of the particular mountain from whence these stones were
procured; but one which strongly resembles that of Sikinan presents
itself as belonging to a district in the vicinity of the places of which we
have been speaking. The river Jihun (or Oxus)," says Ibn Haukal,
" rises within the territories of Badakhshan, and receives the waters of
many other streams. . . . The Wekhshab comes out of Turkestan
into the land of Wekhsh, near a mountain where there is a bridge between
Khotlan and the borders of Weish-kird (the Vash-gherd of D Anville).
. . . Near Wekhsh there are some districts (of Mawaralnahr), such as
Dekhan and Sekineh: these two belong to the infidels. . . . There
are mines of gold and silver in Wekhshab." (P. 239.) By " infidels "
are probably here meant the race of people named Kafirs, whose country
and peculiarities are described in the Appendix to Elphinstone s Account
of Caubul, under the head of Caufiristaun, p. 617; and whom some sup
pose to be the descendants of the Greeks of Bactriana,

8 4

Travels of Marco Polo

licence. Occasionally the king gives them as presents tc
strangers who pass through his dominions, as they are not
procurable by purchase from others, and cannot be exported
without his permission. His object in these restrictions is,
that the rubies of his country, with which he thinks his credit
connected, should preserve their estimation and maintain
their high price; for if they could be dug for indiscriminately,
and every one could purchase and carry them out of the king
dom, so great is their abundance, that they would soon be of
little value. Some he sends as complimentary gifts to other
kings and princes ; some he delivers as tribute (to his superior
lord); and some also he exchanges for gold and silver. These
he allows to be exported. There are mountains likewise in
which are found veins of lapis lazuli, the stone which yields the
azure colour (ultramarine), 1 here the finest in the world.
The mines of silver, copper, and lead, are likewise very pro
ductive. It is a cold country. The horses bred here are of
a superior quality, and have great speed. Their hoofs are so
hard that they do not require shoeing. 2 The natives are in
the practice of galloping them on declivities where other cattle
could not or would not venture to run. They asserted that
not long since there were still found in this province horses of
the breed of Alexander s celebrated Bucephalus, which were
all foaled with a particular mark in the forehead. The whole
of the breed was in the possession of one of the king s uncles,
who, upon his refusal to yield them to his nephew, was put to
death; whereupon his widow, exasperated at the murder,
caused them all to be destroyed; and thus the race was lost to
the world. In the mountains there are falcons of the species
called saker (falco sacer), which are excellent birds, and of
strong flight; as well as of that called laner, (falco lanarius).
There are also goshawks of a perfect kind (falco astur, or
palumbarius), and sparrow hawks (falco nisus). The people
of the country are expert at the chase both of beasts and birds.
Good wheat is grown there, and a species of barley without

1 Speaking of Badakhshan, Abulfeda says: " Inde effertur ol lazurd
et ol bellaur, seu lapis lazuli et beryllus." (Geogr. p. 352.) See also a
passage to the same effect, from Ibn Haukal, in note 2 , p. 83.

* Elphinstone observes that by far the best breeding country (for
horses) in the Caubul dominions is Bulkh (Balkh), and it is from that
province (bordering on Badakhshan) and the Toorkmun country lower
down the Oxus, that the bulk of those exported are brought." (P. 296.)
The practice of shoeing horses seems to be unnecessary where the country
is not stony nor particularly hard. In Sumatra they are never shodden,
nor in Java, excepting in some instances for the paved streets of Batavia

V

Productions of Balashan 85

the husk. 1 There is no oil of olives, but they express if from
certain nuts, and from the grain called sesame, 2 which re
sembles the seed of flax, excepting that it is light-coloured;
and the oil this yields is better, and has more flavour than any
other. It is used by the Tartars and other inhabitants of
these parts.

In this kingdom there are many narrow defiles, and strong
situations, which diminish the apprehension of any foreign
power entering it with a hostile intention. The men are
good archers and excellent sportsmen; generally clothing
themselves with the skins of wild animals; other materials
for the purpose being scarce. The mountains afford pasture
for an innumerable quantity of sheep, which ramble about in
flocks of four, five, and six hundred, all wild; and although
many are taken and killed, there does not appear to be any
diminution. 3 These mountains are exceedingly lofty, inso
much that it employs a man from morning till night to ascend
to the top of them. Between them there are wide plains
clothed with grass and with trees, and large streams of the
purest water precipitating themselves through the fissures of
the rocks. In these streams are trout and many other delicate
sorts of fish. On the summits of the mountains the air is so
pure and so salubrious, that when those who dwell in the towns,
and in the plains and valleys below, find themselves attacked
with fevers or other inflammatory complaints, they immedi
ately remove thither, and remaining for three or four days in
that situation, recover their health. Marco Polo affirms that
he had experience in his own person of its excellent effects;
for having been confined by sickness, in this country, for
nearly a year, 4 he was advised to change the air by ascending
the hills; when he presently became convalescent. A pecu
liar fashion of dress prevails amongst the women of the superior

1 The barley here described is the kind known by the appellations of
hordeum nudum t hordeum glabrum, and hordeum vulgare semi-nidus decor-
ticatis. Our author s expression of senza scorza is exactJy therefore the
specific name given to it by Linnaeus.

2 In India oil is chiefly procured from this grain, the sesamum orientate.
Both walnuts and hazel nuts, from which oil may be extracted^ are found
in the northern parts of Persia.

8 " Les provinces de Perse les plus abondantes en bStail," says Chardin,
sont la Bactriane, etc. J y ai vu des troupeaux de moutons qui couv-
roient quatre & cinq lieues de pais." Tom. ii. p. 29, 4to.

4 The residence in Badakhshan to which our author here adverts,
must have taken place at the period when he was sent on a mission by
the emperor Kublai to the province of Khorasan or of Khorasmia, oi
which mention is made in the latter part of the first chapter.

86 Travels of Marco Polo

class, who wear below their waists, in the manner of drawers,
a kind of garment, in the making of which they employ, accord
ing to their means, an hundred, eighty, or sixty ells of fine cotton
cloth ; which they also gather or plait, in order to increase the
apparent size of their hips; those being accounted the most
handsome who are the most bulky in that part. 1

CHAPTER XXVII

OF THE PROVINCE OF BASCIA LYING SOUTH OF THE FORMER OF
THE GOLDEN ORNAMENTS WORN BY THE INHABITANTS IN
THEIR EARS AND OF THEIR MANNERS.

LEAVING Balashan and travelling in a southerly direction
for ten days, you reach the province of Bacia, 3 the people of
which have a peculiar language. They worship idols; are of
a dark complexion, and of evil disposition; and are skilled in
the art of magic, and the invocation of demons, a study to
which they continually apply themselves. They wear in
their ears pendent rings of gold and silver, adorned with
pearls and precious stones. 3 The climate of the province is

1 In describing the dress worn by the Belooche women, Pottinger says :
" Their trowsers are preposterously wide, and made of silk, or a fabrica
tion of that and cotton mixed." Travels in Beloochistan and Sinde,

p. 65.

2 From the southerly, or rather south-easterly, situation of this place
with respect to the province of Badakhshan, its distance of about two
hundred miles, and other circumstances, I should infer that by Bascia
(in the epitomes Bassia) is meant Paishore or Peshawer, a city not far
from the principal confluence of the rivers that form the Sind or Indus.
It is described by Forster as large and populous, and in consequence of
its well chosen position an important mart, the residence of wealthy
merchants. He says, indeed, that it was founded by Akbar, whose
reign began in 1556; but although that enlightened monarch might have
improved Paishore, and did actually found Attok, lower down on the
river, there is evidence in his own Institutes that the former was in exist
ence before his time. It is there said: " Bekram, commonly called
Paishore, enjoys a delightful spring season. Here is a temple called
Gorekehtery, a place of religious resort, particularly for jowgies." (Ayin
Akbari, vol. ii. p. 205.) This is not the description of a city of recent
date; nor if built by his master, would Abu lfazl have mentioned it in
such slight terms. It is probable upon the whole that Forster applied
to Paishore what he had been told of Attok.

3 It is evident that the people here described, if not actually Indians,
are nearly allied to them. " The houses, food, and habits of life of the
tribes of Peshawer," says Elphinstone, " resemble those of the Eusofzyes.
The dress has also some resemblance, being a mixture of that of the
Indians with that of the Afghauns." P. 359.

The Province of Kesmur 87

in some parts extremely hot. 1 The food of the inhabitants is
meat and rice. 2

CHAPTER XXVIII

OF THE PROVINCE OF KESMUR SITUATED TOWARDS THE SOUTH
EAST OF ITS INHABITANTS WHO ARE SKILLED IN MAGIC
OF THEIR COMMUNICATION WITH THE INDIAN SEA AND
OF A CLASS OF HERMITS, THEIR MODE OF LIFE, AND EXTRA
ORDINARY ABSTINENCE.

Kesmur is a province distant from Bascia seven days journey. 3
Its inhabitants also have their peculiar language. 4 They ar
adepts beyond all others in the art of magic; insomuch that
they can compel their idols, although by nature dumb and
deaf, to speak; they can likewise obscure the day, and per
form many other miracles. They are pre-eminent amongst the

1 " The heat of Peshour," says Forster, " seemed to me more intense
than that of any other country I have visited in the upper parts of
India. . . . The atmosphere in the summer solstice becomes almost
inflammable." (Vol. ii. p. 50.) " Peshawer," says Elphinstone, is
situated in a low plain, surrounded on all sides except the east with hills.
The air is consequently much confined, and the heat greatly increased.
In the summer of 1809 . . . the thermometer was for several days at
112 and 113, in a large tent artificially cooled." P. 132.

a " The markets," Forster adds, " are abundantly supplied with pro
visions of an excellent kind, particularly the mutton, which is the flesh
of the large-tailed sheep." -P. 50.

8 Kesmur or Chesmur (Chesimur in the Latin versions and Cassimur
in the Italian epitomes) is undoubtedly intended for Kashmir. The
distance, indeed, from Paishore or Peshawer, as it cannot be less than
two hundred miles, and in a mountainous country, should be more than
seven days journey; but we must not look for strict accuracy in this
respect; and our own maps differ considerably in the relative position
of the two places. For circumstantial accounts of this interesting
country, the reader may consult the Ayin Akbari, Bernier s and Forster s
Travels, Rennell s Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan, and Elphinstone s
Account of Caubul. In the ages in which our author wrote its popula
tion appears to have been chiefly Hindu; as in more ancient times it was
esteemed one of the principal seats of that religion and of Sanskrit litera
ture. The wealth derived from its celebrated manufacture, and its
idolatrous sanctity, tempted the avarice, and roused the fanatic zeal of
the Mahometans, by whom it was invaded at an early period; but as it
did not fall under the dominion of Jengiz-khan or his immediate suc
cessors, it is here spoken of as an independent kingdom.

4 " The language of Kashmir," says Forster, " evidently springs from
the Sanskrit stock, and resembles in sound that of the Mahrattas."
(P. 22.) " The Cashmerians," says Elphinstone, " are a distinct nation
of the Hindoo stock, and differ in language and manners from all their
neighbours." P. 506.

Travels of Marco Polo

idolatrous nations, and from them the idols, worshipped in
other parts, proceed. 1 From this country there is a com
munication by water with the Indian Sea. 2 The natives are
of a dark complexion, but by no means black; and the women,
although dark, are very comely. Their food is flesh, 3 with
rice and other grains; yet they are in general of a spare
habit. The climate is moderately warm. 4 In this province,
besides the capital, there are many other towns and strong
places. There are also woods, desert tracts, and difficult
passes in the mountains, which give security to the inhabitants
against invasion. 5 Their king is not tributary to any power.
They have amongst them a particular class of devotees, who
live in communities, observe strict abstinence in regard to
eating, drinking, and the intercourse of the sexes, and refrain
from every kind of sensual indulgence, in order that they
may not give offence to the idols whom they worship. These
persons live to a considerable age. They have several monas-

1 This is consistent with what we are told in the Ayin Akbari, that
" the Hindoos regard all Cashmeer as holy land, where forty-five places
are dedicated to Mahadeo, sixty-four to Bishen, three to Brahma, and
twenty-two to Durga (the goddess of mountains)." (Vol. ii. p. 156.) It
is therefore by no means improbable that the Brahmins of this remote
and sacred country may have supplied southern India with many of
those images of their deities in stone and copper with which the temples
abound: for idols of home manufacture, we may presume, have less
honour in their own country than those imported from distant places of
holy repute.

8 " Most of the trade of the country," says the Ayin Akbari, " is carried
on by water." The river Jeilum or Behut, which flows through the
valley of Kashmir, and is there navigable, falls into the Indus, after
uniting its waters with those of the Chenab and the Ravi, not far from
the city of Multan: but as its course, after leaving that valley, is through
a mountainous country, the navigation must be interrupted in some
places.

3 If the population of Kashmir was at that time Hindu, as we have
every reason to suppose, although it had been occasionally subdued by
Mahometans, it may be thought difficult to reconcile to the customs of
those people what is here said of their food consisting in part of flesh;
but in fact, the Hindu castes are not practically so strict in regard to
meats, as the precepts of their religion would lead us to believe. Add
to this, that the Kashmirians being noted at all periods for their light
and dissolute character, it is not among them (however holy their land)
that we are to look for a strict observance of the Vedas.

4 The temperateness of its climate has always been a subject of pane
gyric, and was the occasion of its being the summer residence of the
Moghtil emperors of Hindustan. " The whole of this soobah," says the
Ayin Akbari, " represents a garden in perpetual spring." Vol. ii. p. 152.

5 The valley of Kashmir, embosomed within the Hindu-koh of Indian
Caucasus, is nearly surrounded by lofty mountains, and is consequently
difficult of access to an army; but yet, from the unwarlike character of
the natives, it has been exposed to frequent invasions. The fortifica
tions with which nature has furnished it," Abu lfazl adds, are of an
astonishing height."

The Inhabitants of Kesmur

teries, in which certain superiors exercise the functions of our
abbots, and by the mass of the people they are held in great
reverence. 1 The natives of this country do not deprive any
creature of life,, nor shed blood, and if they are inclined to eat
flesh-meat, it is necessary that the Mahometans who reside
amongst them should slay the animal. 2 The article of coral
carried thither from Europe is sold at a higher price than in
any other part of the world.

If I were to proceed in the same direction, it would lead me
to India; but I have judged it proper to reserve the descrip
tion of that country for a third book; and shall therefore
return to Balashan, intending to pursue from thence the
straight road to Cathay, and to describe, as has been done
from the commencement of the work, not only the countries
through which the route immediately lies, but also those in
its vicinity, to the right and left. 3

1 These monks appear to resemble the talapoins of Ava and Siam, and
gylongs of Tibet, who reside in communities, under the discipline of a
superior, termed a sankra in the former countries, and a lama in the
latter. Like them also they were evidently Buddhists; and although
that proscribed sect may have since disappeared from Kashmir, as from
most of the other provinces of Hindustan, Abu lfazl, who wrote in the
sixteenth century, notices some remains of them in his days. " The
third time," he says, " that the author followed the imperial stirrup to
the delightful territory of Kashmir, he met with some old men of this
religion." (Vol. iii. p. 158.) In another place he tells us that " the most
respectable people of this country are the rishis, who although they do not
suffer themselves to be fettered with traditions (stories of the Puranas),
are doubtless true worshippers of God. They revile not any other sect,
and ask nothing of any one; they plant the roads with fruit trees to
furnish the traveller with refreshment; they abstain from flesh; and
have no intercourse with the other sex. There are near two thousand
of this sect in Kashmir." Vol. ii. p. 155.

2 Abu lfazl, speaking of the priests of the religion of Buddha in Kashmir,
observes, that although they will not kill an animal, they do not refuse
any kind of food that is offered to them ; and whatever dies of itself they
consider to be killed by God, and therefore eat it. (Vol. iii. p. 158.)
Amongst the Hindus many castes are allowed to eat of certain kinds of
animal food, who yet are restrained from shedding blood.

3 Our author here gives a consistent and intelligible account, of the
plan he pursues in his description of the several countries that came
within the scope of his observation or knowledge; and it is only to be
regretted that he has not drawn a clearer line of distinction between
those places which he actually saw himself, and those respecting which
he collected information from others. I am inclined to believe that he
did not visit the Panjab (or country embraced by the streams which form
the Indus), and that what he relates of Peshawer and Kashmir was
furnished to him during his long residence of Badakhshan, by persons
who frequented those places for the purposes of trade.

90 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXIX

OF THE PROVINCE OF VOKHAN OF AN ASCENT FOR THREE DAYS,
LEADING TO THE SUMMIT OF A HIGH MOUNTAIN OF A
PECULIAR BREED OF SHEEP FOUND THERE OF THE EFFECT
OF THE GREAT ELEVATION UPON FIRES AND OF THE
SAVAGE LIFE OF THE INHABITANTS.

LEAVING the province of Balashan, and travelling in a direc
tion between north-east and east,, you pass many castles and
habitations on the banks of the river,, belonging to the brother
of the king of that place, and after three days journey,
reach a province named Vokhan; which itself extends in
length and width to the distance of three days journey. 1
The people are Mahometans,, have a distinct language, are
civilised in their manners, and accounted valiant in war.
Their chief holds his territory as a fief dependent upon Bala-

1 After having traced our author s line of description through countries
where the writings of other travellers enabled us to recognise his steps,
if we should now find ourselves in a region of greater uncertainty, the
change is not to be attributed so much to any additional obscurity on
his part, as to the want of corresponding information on ours, this tract
being very imperfectly known to us. With respect, however, to the
name and situation of Vokhan (the orthography of which differs little in
the several versions), we are not entirely without lights, both ancient
and modern. It is identified, in the first instance, by its connexion with
a place named Weishgerd or Weishkird; concerning which Ibn Haukal
says: " The river Wekhshab comes out of Turkestan, into the land of
Wekhsh, near a mountain where there is a bridge between Khotlan and
the borders of Weishkird. From that it runs towards Balkh, and falls
into the Jihoon at Termed." (P. 239.) In the following passage from
the work of Edrisi, we find the Vokhan of our text brought into contact
with the places here mentioned: " De regionibus finitimis Vachas
(Wekhsh or Wakhsh) et Gil, sunt Vachan (Vokhan) et Sacqita (Sakitah),
in terra Tore. Inter Vachan et Tobbat intercedit iter octodecim dierum.
In Vachan extant fodines argenti." (P. 141.) Weishgerd here appears
to be the country intermediate between Badakhshan and Vokhan, which
our author tells us was governed by a brother of the king of the former.
What Edrisi states respecting this valley, as well as our author s account
of it, are fully justified by the Memoir explaining the map prefixed to
the Account of Caubul, where Lieut. Macartney, speaking of the river
Ammu or Oxus, says: " This river . . . has its source from the high
lands of Pamer. It issues from a narrow valley, two or three hundred
yards broad, in Wukhan,the southern boundary of Pamer. This valley
is inclosed on three sides by the high snowy mountain called Pooshtikbur,
to the south, east, and west. The stream is seen coming from under the
ice." (Appendix, p. 646.) The mere verification of the name and
position of a district so secluded must be allowed to furnish an unex
ceptionable test of the genuineness of our traveller s relation.

The Province of Vokhan 91

shan. They practise various modes of taking wild animals.
Upon leaving this country, and proceeding for three days,
still in an east-north-east course, ascending mountain after
mountain, you at length arrive at a point of the road, where
you might suppose the surrounding summits to be the highest
lands in the world. Here, between two ranges, you perceive
a large lake, from which flows a handsome river, that pursues
its course along an extensive plain, covered with the richest
verdure. Such indeed is its quality that the leanest cattle
turned upon it would become fat in the course of ten days.
In this plain there are wild animals in great numbers, parti
cularly sheep of a large size, having horns, three, four, and
even six palms in length. Of these the shepherds form ladles
and vessels for holding their victuals; and with the same
materials they construct fences for enclosing their cattle, and
securing them against the wolves, with which, they say, the
country is infested, and which likewise destroy many of these
wild sheep or goats. 1 Their horns and bones being found in
large quantities, heaps are made of them at the sides of the
road, for the purpose of guiding travellers at the season when
it is covered with snow. For twelve days the course is along
this elevated plain, which is named Pamer; 2 and as during
all that time you do not meet with any habitations, it is
necessary to make provision at the outset accordingly. So
great is the height of the mountains, that no birds are to be
seen near their summits; and however extraordinary it may
be thought, it was affirmed, that from the keenness of the air,
fires when lighted do not give the same heat as in lower situa
tions, nor produce the same effect in dressing victuals.

After having performed this journey of twelve days, you
have still forty days to travel in the same direction, over
mountains, and through valleys, in perpetual succession, pass-

1 From the length of the horns of these animals, and the uses to which
they were applied, we might suppose them to be a species of ibex or
mountain goat; and although called montoni in the first instance, they
are afterwards spoken of as becchi or boucs. In Elphinstone s Account
of Caubul, this conjecture is justified, where he says : " Goats are common
in all the mountainous parts of the country, and are by no means scarce
in the plains. Some breeds have remarkably long and curiously twisted
horns." (P. 144.) J. Rh. Forster observes that these animals are
termed mouflons and muffioni, by the French and Italian writers.

* We find the elevated plain of Pamer, Pamire, or Pamir, in all the
maps of Persia and the neighbouring countries. In that which accom
panies Macdonald Kinneir s Geographical Memoir, it occupies a place
corresponding to the bearings we should infer from our author s
scription.

92 Travels of Marco Polo

ing many rivers and desert tracts, without seeing any habita
tions or the appearance of verdure. Every article of pro
vision must therefore be carried along with you. This region
is called Beloro. 1 Even amidst the highest of these moun
tains, there live a tribe of savage, ill-disposed, and idolatrous
people, who subsist upon the animals they can destroy, and
clothe themselves with the skins.

CHAPTER XXX

OF THE CITY OF KASHCAR, AND OF THE COMMERCE OF ITS

INHABITANTS.

AT length you reach a place called Kashcar, which, it is said,
was formerly an independent kingdom, but it is now subject
to the dominion of the grand khan. 2 Its inhabitants are of
the Mahometan religion. The province is extensive, and
contains many towns and castles, of which Kashcar is the
largest and most important. 3 The language of the people
is peculiar to themselves. They subsist by commerce and

1 This alpine region, named by eastern geographers Belur or Belor, is
laid down in Strahlenberg s map, from whence, apparently, it has been
transferred to those of D Anville; but its position relatively to Pamir
and Badakhshan will be found still more conformable to our author s
account, in the recent constructions of Macdonald Kinneir and Macart
ney. With respect to the nature of the country, it is spoken of by Elphin-
stone, in terms little differing from those employed in the text. " Izzut-
Hoollah," he says, " gives a frightful picture of the cold and desolation
of this elevated tract, which extends for three marches on the highest
part of the country between Yarkund and Ley (or Ladauk)." Note,
p. 113.

2 Kashgar, or Kashghar, is a well-known city and emporium for the
trade carried on between Tartary, India, and China. It is situated in
that part of Turkistan which Europeans term the Lesser Bucharia, and
was formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name. It was amongst
the places overrun by the irresistible arms of Jengiz-khan, and upon the
division of his empire, was included in the patrimony of his son Jagatai.
About a century after our author s time, it was conquered by Tamerlane;
and, in 1683, by the Kontaish, or great khan of the Kalmucks, from
whom the eastern part of the Lesser Bucharia was wrested, in 1718, by
the Chinese.

3 " Al Bergendi dit," says D Herbelot, qu elle est fort grande, et
qu elle passe pour la capitale de tout le pays; que ses habitans spnt
Mussulmans, et que beaucoup de scavans-hommes en sont sortis."
Macdonald Kinneir s Itineraries speak of it as being situated on a well-
cultivated plain, near a fine river, but not navigable, on the southern side
of a range of mountains called Teeruck Duan.

The City of Samarcan 93

manufacture, particularly works of cotton. They have hand
some gardens, orchards, and vineyards. Abundance of cotton
is produced there, as well as flax and hemp. Merchants from
this country travel to all parts of the world; but in truth they
are a covetous, sordid race, 1 eating badly and drinking worse.
Besides the Mahometans there are amongst the inhabitants
several Nestorian Christians, who are permitted to live under
their own laws, and to have their churches. The extent of
the province is five days journey.

CHAPTER XXXI

OF THE CITY OF SAMARCAN, AND OF THE MIRACULOUS
COLUMN IN THE CHURCH OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST.

SAMARCAN is a noble city, adorned with beautiful gardens,
and surrounded by a plain, in which are produced all the
fruits that man can desire. 2 The inhabitants, who are partly
Christians and partly Mahometans, are subject to the dominion
of a nephew of the grand khan, with whom, however, he is
not upon amicable terms, but on the contrary there is per
petual strife and frequent wars between them. 3 This city lies

1 The people of Bucharia, in the central parts of Asia, appear to re
semble, in their commercial habits and parsimony, the Armenians who
frequent the principal cities of India, and whom Forster, in his Travels,
describes as being industrious, servile, and dishonest; pursuing the
different roads of traffic with unremitting ardour, and invariably measur
ing their pleasures by the mere extent of their wealth. Vol. ii. p. 117.

a It is obvious here, that in order to introduce the description of a
place so important as Samarkand, which our author had probably visited
in one of his official journeys, he departs from the course he was pur
suing towards Kataia, and makes what may be considered as an excursion
into the Greater Bucharia, or Transoxiana. This celebrated city was
taken from the Persians by the khalif Walid in the year 704, and from
the sultan of Khaurizm in 1220, by Jengiz-khan, who gave it up to pillage
and destroyed many of its buildings. From this, however, it might have
recovered in the course of fifty or sixty years that intervened before the
period of which we are speaking. By Timur or Tamerlane it was re
stored to all its ancient splendour, about the year 1370, and became the
capital of his vast dominions; but falling subsequently into the hands
of the Uzbek Tartars, with whom it remained at the close of the last
century, its consequence had much declined.

3 Kashgar being the place last mentioned, it might be presumed that
he speaks of the bearing of Samarkand from thence, but as the actual
direction, instead of being north-west (maestro), is nearly west-south
west, we are justified in looking rather to Badakhshan, where he had

94 Travels of Marco Polo

in the direction of north-west. A miracle is said to have taken
place there, under the following circumstances. Not long
ago, a prince named Zagatai, who was own brother to the (then
reigning) grand khan, became a convert to Christianity;
greatly to the delight of the Christian inhabitants of the place,
who under the favour and protection of the prince, proceeded
to build a church, and dedicated it to St. John the Baptist.
It was so constructed that all the weight of the roof (being
circular) should rest upon a column in the centre, and beneath
this, as a base, they fixed a square stone, which, with the per
mission of the prince, they had taken from a temple belonging
to the Mahometans, who dared not to prevent them from so
doing. But upon the death of Zagatai, his son who succeeded
him showing no disposition to become a Christian, the Mussul
mans had influence enough to obtain from him an order that
their opponents should restore to them the stone they had
appropriated; and although the latter offered to pay them a
compensation in money, they refused to listen to the proposal,
because they hoped that its removal would occasion the church
to tumble down. In this difficulty the afflicted Christians had
no other resource than with tears and humility to recommend
themselves to the protection of the glorious St. John the
Baptist. When the day arrived on which they were to make
restitution of the stone, it came to pass that through the inter
cession of the Saint, the pillar raised itself from its base to the
height of three palms, in order to facilitate the removal of the
stone; and in that situation, without any kind of support, it
remains to the present day, 1 Enough being said of this, we
shall now proceed to the province of Karkan.

long resided, and from whence he professes to begin his account of the
route to Kataia. The latitude of Samarkand, as taken with the famous
mural quadrant of Ulug Beig, the grandson of Tamerlane, is 39 37 N.,
and its longitude, as estimated by Major Rennell, is about 64 15 E. of
Greenwich, or 7^ W. of Kashgar. By D Anville they are placed several
degrees further to the eastward,

1 This is one of the stories, in the way of episode, that have tended to
bring our author s work into disrepute. Zagatai was in fact, as he says,
the brother of Oktai, who succeeded his father as grand khan of the
Moghuls; but we have no authority for his having embraced Christianity,
although the Christians experienced much indulgence under Jengiz-khan
and his immediate successors, and Mangu, his grandson, the nephew of
Zagatai, is said by Rubruquis and Haitou to have been baptized. The
text from which Marsden translated states that the circumstance referred
to occurred a hundred and twenty-five years before this book was written,
upon which he observes that, doubtful or improbable as the circumstance
of Zagatai s conversion may be, the difficulty it occasions would be more
easily surmounted than that of the anachronism; for as he began to
reign about the year 1227, and died in 1240, the time elapsed at the

The Province of Karkan 95

CHAPTER XXXII

OF THE PROVINCE OF KARKAN, THE INHABITANTS OF WHICH ARE
TROUBLED WITH SWOLLEN LEGS AND WITH GOITRES.

DEPARTING from thence you enter the province of Karkan/
which continues to the distance of five days journey. Its
inhabitants, for the most part Mahometans, with some Nes-
torian Christians, are subjects of the grand khan. Provisions
are here in abundance, as is also cotton. The people are
expert artisans. They are in general afflicted with swellings
in the legs, and tumours in the throat, occasioned by the
quality of the water they drink. 2 In this country there is
not anything further that is worthy of observation.

period when Marco Polo s Travels were written could not be more than
about seventy years, even if the event took place at the commencement
of his reign; whereas the space of 125 years, as stated in the text, would
carry it back to 1173, when his father was only nine years of age, and the
family obscure. This species of absurd error I can neither account for
nor palliate, otherwise than by supposing that the date, which does not
appear in the Latin versions or Italian epitomes, has been an interpolation
in one of the manuscripts followed by Ramusio. [All the early manu
scripts agree in the phrase translated in the present edition non e gran
tempo che non est magnum tempus quod il fu voir qu il ne a encore
granment de tens que.]

1 The visit to Samarkand being excursive, or put of the line of his
present route, our author leads us back to a place in the Lesser Bucharia
which at that time belonged to the kingdom of Kashgar, noticed in the
preceding chapter. Carchan, or Karkan, was intended for the district,
or rather its chief town, which is most generally known by the name of
Yerken; although its orthography has been exposed to as much varia
tion amongst the writers of latter times, as in the copies of our author s
work. By the Portuguese missionary Benjamin Goez the word is written
Hiarchan; by Du Halde, Yarkian; by Strahlenberg, in his map, Jerken,
Hyarchan, or Gurkan; by D Anville, Jerken; by De Guignes, Yerken;
and by our modern travellers from the side of Hindustan, Yarkund.
" It appears," says Lieut. Macartney, " that after five days journey
north-east of Cashmeer, an evident ascent commences, which is very
great for three or four days journey, after which it is less on to Leh (or
Ladak). The ascent continues even on to the great ridge which separates
Tibet from Yarkund." Account of Caubul, p. 646. Appendix.

2 The permanent cedematous swelling of the leg to a monstrous size is
a disorder well known in several parts of the East, and vulgarly termed
in India the " Cochin leg." For an account of this species of elephantiasis,
see Cordiner s Description of Ceylon, vol. i. p. 182. Respecting the
cause of those glandulous tumours at the throat called goitres, much has
been written by travellers and medical persons, who in general attribute
it to the quality of the water, although the notion of its preceding from
snow-water has been exploded. I have elsewhere ventured to express

9 6

Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXXIII

OF THE CITY OF KOTAN, WHICH IS ABUNDANTLY SUPPLIED
WITH ALL THE NECESSARIES OF LIFE.

FOLLOWING a course between north-east and east, you next
come to the province of Kotan, 1 the extent of which is eight
days journey. It is under the dominion of the grand khan,
and the people are Mahometans. It contains many cities
and fortified places, but the principal city, and which gives
its name to the province, is Kotan. Everything necessary for
human life is here in the greatest plenty. It yields likewise
cotton, flax, hemp, grain, wine, and other articles. The in
habitants cultivate farms and vineyards, and have numerous
gardens. 2 They support themselves also by trade and manu
factures, but they are not good soldiers. We shall now speak
of a province named Peyn.

an opinion that these affections of the glands of the throat are occasioned
by the dense mists which settle in the valleys between high mountains,
and are not dispersed until a late hour of the day. (Hist, of Sumatra,
3d edit., p. 48.) See an ingenious paper on this subject by Dr. Reeves,
published in the Phil. Trans, for the year 1808, vol. xcviii. p. in.

1 The name of Kotan is indubitably Khoten (the Yu-tien and Ho-tien
of the Chinese, who soften the Tartar pronunciation), a place familiar
to us, by name at least, as that from whence a great part of Asia is sup
plied with musk, which the natives rank amongst the most exquisite
perfumes, and the Persian poets never cease to extol. Beyond this cir
cumstance our information concerning it is very imperfect. " Khoten,"
says Malcolm, " was formerly of some importance, and its chiefs are
often mentioned. It was conquered, with Kashgar, Yarkund, and other
provinces in the same quarter, by the Chinese, in 1757, and now forms
part of that great empire. A respectable inhabitant of Tartary, who
visited the town of Khoten about twenty years ago, describes it as in a
flourishing state, though inferior in size to the city of Yarkund, from
which it is distant about 140 miles. Khoten is still, according to this
traveller s account, celebrated for its musk." Hist, of Persia, vol. i.
p. 324, note.

2 Although we do not meet with direct authority for the cultivation of
the vine at Khoten, there can be little doubt of the fact, as we read of
vineyards at Hami, or Khamil, to the eastward, as well as at Kashgar,
to the northward of this place, and within the same canton or district.

Singular Matrimonial Custom 97

CHAPTER XXXIV

OF THE PROVINCE OF PEYN OF THE CHALCEDONIES AND JASPER
FOUND IN ITS RIVER AND OF A PECULIAR CUSTOM WITH
REGARD TO MARRIAGES.

PEYN is a province of five days journey in extent, in the
direction of east-north-east. 1 It is under the dominion of the
grand khan, and contains many cities and strong places, the
principal one of which is likewise named Peyn. Through this
flows a river, and in its bed are found many of those stones
called chalcedonies and jasper. 2 All kinds of provision are
obtained here. Cotton also is produced in the country. The
inhabitants live by manufacture and trade. They have this
custom, that if a married man goes to a distance from home to
be absent twenty days, his wife has a right, if she is inclined,
to take another husband; and the men, on the same principle,
marry wherever they happen to reside. All the before-men
tioned provinces, that is to say, Kashcar, Kotan, Peyn, and as
far as the desert of Lop, are within the limits of Turkistan. 3
Next follows the province of Charchan.

1 Our author s course of description now leads us to places situated on
the eastern side of Khoten, and in the neighbourhood of the great sandy
desert, where we are left without any guidance excepting the scanty
notices with which he has furnished us. The situation assigned by
D Anville to Peyn or Pe-yn (which in the epitomes is Poim or Poin),
being seven degrees of longitude from Khoten, seems to be too far to the
eastward, and to approach too nearly to the frontier of China. In this
opinion, which applies equally to the intermediate places which are the
subject of the following chapters, I am warranted by that of Major
Rennell, who says: " I think that our maps are in a great error with
respect to the positions of the countries lying between Bucharia and
China; all of which, in my idea, have been made to recede too much
from Bucharia towards China." Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. 191.

2 The jasper, or a hard kind of stone resembling jasper, is noticed by
several writers as the production of this part of Tartary ; and Goez speaks
of its being procured from the bed of the river at Khoten, which may
probably be the same stream that afterwards runs to Peyn.

3 The eastern limits of Turkistan, or Turquestan, are not well denned;
but it may be considered generally as extending throughout that tract
of Central Asia in which dialects of the Turki or Turko-Tartarian language
are spoken; and as the Bukhar or Buchanan, although much mixed
with Persian words, is one of these dialects, it follows that our author is
warranted in considering places that belong to what Europeans term the.
Lesser Bucharia, and Eastern writers the kingdom of Kashgar, as form
ing a part of Turkistan, which consequently reaches to the borders of the
great desert of Kobi. For the convenience of geography, it is distin
guished into Chinese and Independent Turkistan. separated from each

Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXXV

OF THE PROVINCE OF CHARCHAN OF THE KINDS OF STONE
FOUND IN ITS RIVERS AND OF THE NECESSITY THE IN
HABITANTS ARE UNDER, OF FLYING TO THE DESERT ON THE
APPROACH OF THE ARMIES OF THE TARTARS.

CHARCHAN is also a province of Turkistan, lying in an east-
north-east direction (from Peyn). In former times it was
flourishing and productive, but has been laid waste by the
Tartars. The people are Mahometans. Its chief city is like
wise named Charchan. 1 Through this province run several
large streams, in which also are found chalcedonies and jaspers,
which are carried for sale to Cathay, 2 and such is their abun
dance that they form a considerable article of commerce.
The country from Peyn to this district, as well as throughout
its whole extent, is an entire sand, 3 in which the water is for
the most part bitter and unpalatable, although in particular
places it is sweet and good. When an army of Tartars passes
through these places, if they are enemies the inhabitants are
plundered of their goods, and if friends their cattle are killed
and devoured. For this reason, when they are aware of the
approach of any body of troops, they flee, with their families
and cattle, into the sandy desert, to the distance of two days
journey, towards some spot where they can find fresh water,

other by the great mountainous range of Belur-tag and Mush- tag or
Imaus. Elphinstone refers to this division when he says: " Those
(caravans from the side of India) which go to Chinese Toorkistaun, set
off from Cashmeer and Peshawer: Caubul is the great mart of Inde
pendent Toorkistaun." (Account of Caubul, p. 293.) [The words of
the early Latin version are, " Sunt de magna Turchia."]

Charchan (in Ramusio, Ciarcian; in the Basle edition and older
Latin, Ciartiam; and in the Italian epitome, Ciarchian) appears to cor
respond with the Schachan of Strahlenberg s map, although its situation
seems to be rather that of Karashai. De Guignes speaks of a district
named Chen-chen, to the south of Hami, and near the lake of Lop, which
can be no other than this. See Hist. gen. des Huns, torn, i. part. ii.

p. ii.

2 The name of the place to which these jaspers are said to be carried
is in Ramusio s text Ouchah or Oukah, but evidently by mistake. In
the Basle edition the words are, " quos negotiators deferunt ad pro-
vinciam Cathai," and in the manuscripts it is Catay: which is known to
be the fact.

3 In the Italian epitomes it is here said, rather more precisely:
" Questa provincia e tutta piena de sabion per la mazor parte; e da
Cata (Kataia) infino a Poin (Peyn) e molto sabion."

The Town of Lop 99

and are by that means enabled to subsist. From the same
apprehension, when they collect their harvest, they deposit the
grain in caverns amongst the sands; taking monthly from the
store so much as may be wanted for their consumption; nor
can any persons besides themselves know the places to which
they resort for this purpose, because the tracks of their feet are
presently effaced by the wind. Upon leaving Charchan the
road lies for five days over sands, where the water is generally,
but not in all places, bad. Nothing else occurs here that is
worthy of remark. At the end of these five days you arrive at
the city of Lop, on the borders of the great desert.

CHAPTER XXXVI

OF THE TOWN OF LOP OF THE DESERT IN ITS VICINITY AND OF
THE STRANGE NOISES HEARD BY THOSE WHO PASS OVER
THE LATTER.

THE town of Lop is situated towards the north-east, near the
commencement of the great desert, which is called the Desert
of Lop. 1 It belongs to the dominions of the grand khan, and
its inhabitants are of the Mahometan religion. Travellers who
intend to cross the desert usually halt for a considerable time
at this place, as well to repose from their fatigues as to make
the necessary preparations for their further journey. For this
purpose they load a number of stout asses and camels with pro
visions and with their merchandise. Should the former be
consumed before they have completed the passage, they kill

1 The lake of Lop appears in the Jesuits and D Anville s maps. In
the latter we find also a town named " Tantabee ou Tankabash, resi
dence de 1 ancieii khan de Tagazgaz, ville de Lop dans Marc- Paul ; " but his
authority for this supposition does not appear. " Ces deux villes dont
je viens de parler," says De Guignes, speaking of Ciatiam (or Charchan)
and Lop, paroissent Stre les inemes que celles de Kantcheou et de
Harikiun-tcheou, que les envoyes Chinois trouverent dans leur route
de Cha-tcheou a Khoten, mais il me paroit impossible d en assigner
la veritable position." (P. 17.) Instead of the name of Lop, which
this desert bears in Ramusio s as well as in most of the other versions,
the word in the early Italian epitomes is Job; and this variation of
orthography gives rise to the conjecture that it may have been intended
for Kobi, which is said to be the original Tartar name. " Tout cet espace,"
says Du Halde, " n est qu un terrain sec et sablonneux, le plus sterile qui
qui soit dans toute la Tartarie. C est ce que les Chinois appellent ordin-
airement Charno (Shamo), quelquefois Kan-hai, comme qui diroit mer de
sable. Les Tartares le nomment Cobi." Tom. iv. p. 26.

i oo Travels of Marco Polo

and eat the cattle of both kinds; but camels are commonly
here employed in preference to asses, because they carry heavy
burthens and are fed with a small quantity of provender. The
stock of provisions should be laid in for a month, that time
being required for crossing the desert in the narrowest part.
To travel it in the direction of its length would prove a vain
attempt, as little less than a year must be consumed, and to
convey stores for such a period would be found impracticable. 1
During these thirty days the journey is invariably over either
sandy plains or barren mountains ; but at the end of each day s
march you stop at a place where water is procurable; not in
deed in sufficient quantity for large numbers, but enough to
supply a hundred persons, together wth their beasts of burthen.
At three or four of these halting-places the water is salt and
bitter, but at the others, amounting to about twenty, it is
sweet and good. In this tract neither beasts nor birds are met
with, because there is no kind of food for them. 2

It is asserted as a well-known fact that this desert is the
abode of many evil spirits, which amuse travellers to their
destruction with most extraordinary illusions. If, during the
day-time, any persons remain behind on the road, either when
overtaken by sleep or detained by their natural occasions, until
the caravan has passed a hill and is no longer in sight, they un
expectedly hear themselves called to by their names, and in a
tone of voice to which they are accustomed. Supposing the
call to proceed from their companions, they are led away by it

1 In the Jesuits map prefixed to Du Halde s " Description de la Chine,"
the desert is made to extend, with a partial interruption, from the meri
dian of Peking, westward to the thirty-fifth degree of longitude reckoned
from that city. The impracticability, therefore, of travelling over it in
that direction, as observed by our author, is evident.

2 The general conformity of this description, as it regards the dreary
aspect of the country and the nature of the halting places, with the ac
count given by that excellent traveller John Bell of Antermony, who
crossed another part of the same desert, in his route from Selinginsky
to Peking, will be found very striking; and it is remarkable that the
number of days employed was in the one case thirty, and in the other
twenty-eight. The most material difference between them is, that Bell,
during several days of his journey, met with sheep, and afterwards herds
of antelopes, as well as a flock of plovers, whereas our author saw neither
beasts nor birds in his passage. But it is not improbable that the desert
may be more barren and inhospitable towards its western extremity;
and it is at the same time reasonable to suppose that the line of road
taken by the Chinese government for their communication with the
Russian dominions, should be through that part where there was the
best chance of finding the means of subsistence. It is also possible that
some changes may have taken place in the course of four hundred and
fifty years, and that a breed of sheep may have been carried to those
spots which exhibited symptoms of vegetation.

The Spirits of the Desert 101

from the direct road, and not knowing in what -direction to
advance, are left to perish. In the night-time they are per
suaded they hear the march of a large cavalcade on one side or
the other of the road, and concluding the noise to be that of the
footsteps of their party, they direct theirs to the quarter from
whence it seems to proceed; but upon the breaking of day,
find they have been misled and drawn into a situation of
danger. Sometimes likewise during the day these spirits
assume the appearance of their travelling companions, who
address them by name and endeavour to conduct them out of
the proper road. It is said also that some persons, in their
course across the desert, have seen what appeared to them to
be a body of armed men advancing towards them, and appre
hensive of being attacked and plundered have taken to flight.
Losing by this means the right path, and ignorant of the
direction they should take to regain it, they have perished
miserably of hunger. Marvellous indeed and almost passing
belief are the stories related of these spirits of the desert, which
are said at times to fill the air with the sounds of all kinds of
musical instruments, and also of drums and the clash of arms ;
obliging the travellers to close their line of march and to pro
ceed in more compact order. 1 They find it necessary also to
take the precaution before they repose for the night, to fix an
advanced signal, pointing out the course they are afterwards
to hold, as well as to attach a bell to each of the beasts of
burthen for the purpose of their being more easily kept from
straggling. Such are the excessive troubles and dangers that
must unavoidably be encountered in the passage of this desert.

CHAPTER XXXVII

OF THE PROVINCE OF TANGUTH OF THE CITY OF SACHION OF
THE CUSTOM OBSERVED THERE UPON THE BIRTH OF A MALE
CHILD AND OF THE CEREMONY OF BURNING THE BODIES
OF THE DEAD

WHEN the journey of thirty days across the desert has been
completed, you arrive at a city called Sachion, 2 which belongs

1 We find in the works of the Chinese geographers that these idle
stories are the subject of general belief in the part of Tartary here
described.

2 Having crossed a narrow part of the great desert, in a direction from
the towns of the kingdom of Kashgar towards the nearest point of China,

IO2 Travels of Marco Polo

to the grand khan. The province is named Tanguth. 1 The
people are worshippers of idols. 2 There are Turkomans among
them, with a few Nestorian Christians and Mahometans.

our author s course naturally leads him to a place named Cha-tcheou,
according to the French, or Sha-cheu according to our orthography.
" A I est du lac de Lop," says De Guignes, " on trouve une ville que M.
Paul appelle Sachion, la Cha-tcheou ou ville de sable des Chinois." (P.
12.) The corruption of this name from Sha-cheu to Sachion will appear
to have arisen chiefly from the difficulty of distinguishing the u from n
in manuscripts; and it will be found that a great proportion of the
Chinese names for towns, in the subsequent parts of the work, are affected
by the same error. The place is situated about four degrees to the west
ward of So-cheu (an important garrison at the western extremity of the
province of Shen-si), and commands the entrance of a famous pass or
gorge of the mountains, named Yang-kuan. In the history of Jengiz-
khan by Petis de la Croix it is observed, that his occupation of this strong
post was of the greatest advantage to his subsequent operations against
the southern provinces of China. (P. 481.) It may appear an objection
to this identifying of Sachion with Sha-cheu, which lies in the direct way
to, and not very distant from the Chinese province of Shen-si, that in
the next chapter he proceeds to speak of a place not intermediate, but
on the contrary still further from the borders, and in a different direction.
But it must be recollected that our author s work is not a simple itinerary,
and that he professes to describe parts not in the Une of his original
journey, but which he might have visited subsequently whilst in the
service of the emperor. Here, too, we may remark that he does not
give any estimation of distance, as if the route were continuous, but
breaks off in order to speak of other places, " at the head of the desert."

1 It is not unusual to consider the names of Tangut and Tibet, both of
which have been adopted by the Persians from the Moghuls, as synony
mous; but the former applies to a larger portion of Tartary, bordering
upon the western provinces of China, and including Tibet in its southern
division, whilst its northern contains the districts of which our author
now proceeds to speak. According to Du Halde s definition, however,
it does not extend quite so far northward as the situation assigned to
Cha-tcheou in the Jesuits map.

a The inhabitants of the countries on the western side of the desert of
Lop or Kobi were described by our author as being chiefly Mahometans;
but upon crossing that tract and entering the. province of Tangut, or
Sifan, as it is termed by the Chinese, he properly speaks of the people
as idolaters. By idolatry is here meant the religion generally known as
that of the grand lama, or spiritual sovereign, whom his followers believe
to be immortal, by means of successive regeneration of the same indivi
dual in different bodies, but do not worship, as has been supposed. Their
adoration is paid to a number of images of deities, but principally to one,
which is often of a colossal size, and is named by them Shakia-muni.
This is the Buddha of the Hindu mythology, whose doctrines are more
extensively disseminated throughout the east than even those of Ma
homet. In Ava and Pegu the same idol is worshipped by the name of
Gautama (equally with Shakia an epithet or attribute of Buddha), in
Siam by that of Samana-kodom, in Cochin-China and Tonkin by that of
But and Thika-mauni, in Japan by that of Shaka and Amida Buth, and
in China, where the same system prevails amongst the bulk of the popu
lation, by that of Fo or Fuh. Many of the other objects of worship
appear to belong to the Brahmanic mythology, and some are of a local
character. It is evident at the same time that with respect to forms and
ceremonies, of which there will be occasion to say more hereafter, many
of them have been adopted from the Nestorian Christians.

The People of Tangut 103

Those who are idolaters have a language distinct from the
others. 1 This city lies towards the east-north-east. They are
not a commercial, but an agricultural people, having much
wheat. There are in this country a number of monasteries and
abbeys, which are filled with idols of various descriptions. 2
To these, which they regard with the profoundest reverence,
they also offer sacrifices; and upon the birth of a son, they
recommend him to the protection of some one of their idols.
In honour of this deity the father rears a sheep in his house
until the expiration of a year, when, upon the day of the idol s
peculiar festival, they conduct their son, together with the
sheep, into its presence, and there sacrifice the animal. The
flesh they seethe, and then they carry it and lay it before the
idol, and stand there until they have finished a long prayer, the
subject of which is to entreat the idol to preserve the health
of their child ; 3 and they believe that during this interval
it has sucked in all the savoury juices of the meat. The
remaining substance they then carry home, and, assembling-
all their relations and friends, eat it with much devout
festivity. They collect the bones, and preserve them in
handsome urns. The priests of the idol have for their portion

1 This we term the language of Tibet, which is monosyllabic in its
principle, like the Chinese, but in every other respect differs from it.
The written character bears more commonly the appellation of Tangut
or Tangutian, and in its alphabetic arrangement acknowledges a nagri
or Sanskrit origin.

2 Of the numerous and capacious buildings erected in a country where
every fourth male of a family is devoted to the monastic life, we find fre
quent mention in the writings of travellers, and particularly in the ac
counts of Bogle s mission in 1774, and Turner s in 1783, to the court of
the southern grand lama. The plates annexed to the latter will furnish
the curious reader with a perfect idea of the exterior appearance of these
monasteries, some of which contain from two to three thousand gylongs
or monks. An engraving of the same subject appears also amongst the
plates connected with Lord Macartney s Embassy to China: various
circumstances relative to the interior of the establishments will be found
in Turner s pleasing narrative, and a general description, with a ground
plan, in the Alphabetum Tibetanum of Georgi, p. 407. In the Mem.
cone, les Chinois, torn, xiv., we find an elaborate account of the great
miao or abbey of Putala, at Lhassa, which has " 367 pieds quatre pouces
de hauteur."

3 The ceremony here described, in which the sacrifice of the sheep
appears to be intended as a ransom for the child, who, at his birth, may
have been devoted rather than recommended to the guardian deity, is
consistent with what is remarked by the younger De Guignes, of a prac
tice amongst the neighbours of this people. " Comme les Chinois," says
this traveller, implorent les genies dans toutes les circonstances de
la vie, il n est pas surprenant qu ils les invoquent pour en obtenir la
conservation de leurs enfans. Lorsqu ils craignent de les perdre, ils les
consacrent & quelque dieu." (Voyages a Peking, etc., torn. ii. p. 359.)
A similar custom is said to exist in Bengal.

104 Travels of Marco Polo

the head, the feet, the intestines, and the skin, together
with some parts of the flesh. In respect to the dead,
likewise, these idolaters have particular ceremonies. Upori
the decease of a person of rank, whose body it is intended to
burn, 1 the relations call together the astrologers, and make
them acquainted with the year, the day, and the hour in which
he was born; whereupon these proceed to examine the horo
scope, and having ascertained the constellation or sign, and the
planet therein presiding, declare the day on which the funeral
ceremony shall take place. If it should happen that the same
planet be not then in the ascendant, they order the body to
be kept a week or more, and sometimes even for the space of
six months, before they allow the ceremony to be performed.
In the hope of a propitious aspect, and dreading the effects of
a contrary influence, the relations do not presume to burn the
corpse until the astrologers have fixed the proper time. 2 It
being necessary on this account that, in many cases, the
body should remain long in the house, in order to guard
against the consequences of putrefaction, they prepare
a coffin made of boards a palm in thickness, well fitted
together and painted, in which they deposit the corpse, and
along with it a quantity of sweet-scented gums, camphor, and
other drugs; the joints or seams they smear with a mixture of
pitch and lime, and the whole is then covered with silk. Dur
ing this period the table is spread every day with bread, wine,
and other provisions, which remain so long as is necessary for a
convenient meal, as well as for the spirit of the deceased, which
they suppose to be present on the occasion, to satisfy itself
with the fumes of the victuals. Sometimes the astrologers
signify to the relations that the body must not be conveyed
from the house through the principal door, in consequence of
their having discovered from the aspect of the heavens, or
otherwise, that such a course would be unlucky, and it must
therefore be taken out from a different side of the house. 3 In

1 It is only on the bodies of personages of the highest rank that the
honours of the funeral pile are bestowed; those of the inferior orders
being exposed in unfrequented places, and sometimes on the tops of
mountains, to be devoured by birds and other wild animals.

* The implicit deference paid to the skill of astrologers in determining
the days and hours proper for the performance of all acts, public and
domestic, solemn or trivial, is general throughout the East.

3 This custom is found to prevail also amongst the Chinese with whom
the inhabitants of a country so near to the borders of the empire, as that
which our author is now describing, must have much in common. " C est
parmi eux," adds Du Halde, " un usage de faire de nouvelles ouvertures
a Jours maisons, quand on doit transporter le corps de leurs parens

Funeral Customs in Tangut 105

some instances, indeed, they oblige them to break through the
wall that happens to stand opposite to the propitious and
beneficent planet, and to convey the corpse through that aper
ture; persuading them that if they should refuse to do so, the
spirit of the defunct would be incensed against the family and
cause them some injury. Accordingly, when any misfortune
befalls a house, or any person belonging to it meets with an
accident or loss, or with an untimely death, the astrologers do
not fail to attribute the event to a funeral not having taken
place during the ascendency of the planet under which the
deceased relative was born, but, on the contrary, when it was
exposed to a malign influence, or to its not having been con
ducted through the proper door. As the ceremony of burning
the body must be performed without the city, they erect from
space to space in the road by which the procession is to pass,
small wooden buildings, with a portico which they cover with
silk; and under these, as it arrives at each, the body is set
down. They place before it meats and liquors, and this is
repeated until they reach the appointed spot, believing, as
they do, that the spirit is thereby refreshed and acquires energy
to attend the funeral pile. Another ceremony also is practised
on these occasions. They provide a number of pieces of paper,
made of the bark of a certain tree, upon which are painted the
figures of men, women, horses, camels, pieces of money, and
dresses, and these they burn along with the corpse, under the
persuasion that in the next world the deceased will enjoy the
services and use of the domestics, cattle, and all the articles
depicted on the paper. 1 During the whole of these proceed
ings, all the musical instruments belonging to the place are
sounded with an incessant din. 2 Having now spoken of this
city, others lying towards the north-west, near the head of the
desert, shall next be mentioned.

decedez au lieu de leur sepulture, et de les refermer aussitot, afin de
s epargner la douleur que leur causeroit le frequent souvenir du defunt,
qui se renouvelleroit toutes les fois qu ils passeroient par la meme porte
ou est passe le cerciieil." (P. 128.) Nor is the prejudice here described con
fined to the eastern parts of the world; for in a town or village of North
Holland (as I was informed on the spot) a corpse is never carried out
through the front or principal door, but from the rear of the house.

1 Could we suppose the missionaries to have derived their knowledge
of the customs of these people from the writings of our author, the
parallel could not be more complete than it will be found in various
passages of Du Halde.

2 All accounts of the ceremonies of these people notice the loud
clangour of their music.

106 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXXVIII

OF THE DISTRICT OF KAMUL, AND OF SOME PECULIAR CUSTOMS
RESPECTING THE ENTERTAINMENT OF STRANGERS

KAMUL is a district situated within the great province of
Tanguth, subject to the grand khan, and contains many towns
and castles, of which the principal city is also named Kamul. 1
This district lies in the intermediate space between two deserts ;
that is to say, the great desert already described, and another
of smaller extent, being only about three days journey across. 2
The inhabitants are worshippers of idols, and have their
peculiar language. 3 They subsist on the fruits of the earth,
which they possess in abundance, and are enabled to supply
the wants of travellers. 4 The men are addicted to pleasure,
and attend to little else than playing upon instruments, singing,

1 Kamul, which the Tartars are said to pronounce Khamil, or Hamil
with a strong aspiration, is the Kami of the Jesuits map, softened in the
Chinese pronunciation, as the title of khan is changed to han. In the
narrative of B. Goez it is stated, that after leaving a place named Cialis
(the Juldus of Strahlenberg s map), and passing another named Pucian,
also belonging to the, kingdom of Cascar, they reached Turphan and
remained there a month. " Apres ils parvindrent a Aramuth, et puis a
Camul, place garnie de bonnes deffences. Ilz reposerent icy avec leurs
chevaux un autre mois. . . . Estans partis de Camul ilz arriverent dans
neuf jours a ces murs septentrionaux du rpyaume de la Chine, en un lieu
nomme Chiaicuon (Kia-yu-kuan). . . . Aians done enfin este reus dans
1 enclos de ces murailles, ilz arriverent en un jour en la ville de Socieu
(So-cheu)." (Histoire de PExpedition Chrestienne, par Trigault, pp.
482 485.) The distance, however, from Kami to So-cheu, the most
western town of China, being by the maps about 280 miles, would render
it a journey, for a caravan, of more than ten days.

2 This account of the position of Kamul will be found to correspond
exactly to that of Hami, which together with Turfan occupies a tract of
cultivable land that seems nearly to divide the great desert of Kobi into
two parts. See the Jesuits maps accompanying Du Halde s " Descrip
tion de la Chine."

3 At the period of Shah Rokh s embassy, which was about a century
and a half later than our author s visit to this place, it was under a
Mahometan government.

4 " Le pays," says Gerbfllon, " est fort chaud en etc; il y croit quantite
de bons fruits." (P. 54.) The Abbe Grosier observes that " the country
of Hami, though surrounded by deserts, is accounted one of the most
delightful in the world. The soil produces abundance of grain, fruits,
leguminous plants, and pasture of every kind. The rice which grows
here is particularly esteemed in China. . . . There is no fruit more deli
cate or more in request than the melons of Hami, which are carried to
Peking for the emperor s table . . . but the most useful and most
esteemed production of the country is its dried raisins." General
Description of China, vol. i. p. 333.

The District of Kamul 107

dancing, reading, writing, according to the practice of the
country, and the pursuit, in short, of every kind of amusement. 1
When strangers arrive, and desire to have lodging and accom
modation at their houses, it affords them the highest gratifi
cation. They give positive orders to their wives, daughters,
sisters, and other female relations, to indulge their guests in
every wish, whilst they themselves leave their homes, and retire
into the city, and the stranger lives in the house with the
females as if they were his own wives, and they send whatever
necessaries may be wanted; but for which, it is to be under
stood, they expect payment: nor do they return to their houses
so long as the strangers remain in them. This abandonment
of the females of their family to accidental guests, who assume
the same privileges and meet with the same indulgences as if
they were their own wives, is regarded by these people as doing
them honour and adding to their reputation; considering the
hospitable reception of strangers, who (after the perils and
fatigues of a long journey) stand in need of relaxation, as an
action agreeable to their deities, calculated to draw down the
blessing of increase upon their families, to augment their sub
stance, and to procure them safety from all dangers, as well as
a successful issue to all their undertakings. The women are in
truth very handsome, very sensual, and fully disposed to con
form in this respect to the injunction of their husbands. It
happened at the time when Mangu Khan held his court in this
province, that the above scandalous custom coming to his
knowledge, he issued an edict strictly commanding the people
of Kamul to relinquish a practice so disgraceful to them, and
forbidding individuals to furnish lodging to strangers, who
should be obliged to accommodate themselves at a house of
public resort or caravanserai. In grief and sadness the in
habitants obeyed for about three years the command of their
master; but finding at length that the earth ceased to yield
the accustomed fruits, and that many unfortunate events
occurred in their families, they resolved to despatch a deputa-

1 " Leurs diver tissemens," says P. Amiot, speaking of the inhabitants
of this part of the country, " consistent en chants et en danses. Us se
mettent par bandes de cinq ou six hommes et femmes pele-mele, se
prennent par la main, et tournent ensemble, en faisant de terns en terns
quelques sauts." (Mem. concern, les Chinois, torn. xiv. p. 152.) We
should not have expected to find reading and writing classed amongst
light and effeminate occupations; but allowance must be made for the
prejudices of a person educated in a Tartar court. A detailed account of
the manner and instruments of writing amongst these people will be
found in the Alphabetum Tibetanum, pp. 561 567.

io8 Travels of Marco Polo

tion to the grand khan, in their names, to beseech him that he
should be pleased to suffer them to resume the observance of a
custom that had been solemnly handed down to them by their
fathers, from their ancestors in the remotest times; and
especially as since they had failed in the exercise of these
offices of hospitality and gratification to strangers, the interest
of their families had gone progressively to ruin. The grand
khan, having listened to this application, replied: " Since you
appear so anxious to persist in your own shame and ignominy,
let it be granted as you desire. Go, live according to your
base customs and manners, and let your wives continue to
receive the beggarly wages of their prostitution." With this
answer the deputies returned home, to the great delight of all
the people, who, to the present day, observe their ancient
practice. 1

CHAPTER XXXIX

OF THE CITY OF CHINCHITALAS

NEXT to the district of Kamul follows that of Chinchitalas,
which in its northern part borders on the desert, and is in
length sixteen days journey. 2 It is subject to the grand khan,

1 In Elphinstone s account of Caubul he gives a description of manners
prevailing in the tribes that inhabit the eastern part of the Paropamisan
mountains, so nearly similar to what pur author mentions, that I am
gratified by the occasion of verifying his statement by authority so re
spectable. " The women," he says, " are often handsome. ... It is
universally agreed that they are by no means remarkable for chastity;
but I have heard different accounts of their libertinism. In the north
east, which is the most civilized part of the country, the women would
prostitute themselves for money, while their husbands were out of the
way. ... In other parts of the country there prevails a custom called
Kooroo Bistaun, by which the husband lends his wife to the embraces
of his guests. This," he adds in a note, " is Moghul: one of the laws of
the Yasa forbids adultery. The inhabitants of Caiader applied for, and
received an exemption, on account of their old usage of lending their
wives to their guests." -P. 483.

a Mention is made in L Hist. generate des Huns of a place named Chen-
chen, which has been supposed to be the Chinchitalas of our author.
Tala, it should be observed, signifies in the Moghul-Tartar language, " a
plain," and talai or dalai, " a sea or extensive lake: " tolas may therefore
be considered as an appellative, distinct from the proper name. " Ce
pays," says De Guignes, " qui dans les historiens Chinois porte les deux
noms de Leou-lan et de Chen-chen, est situe au midi de Kami. II formoit
anciennement un petit royaune dont la capitale 6toit Kan-ni-tching
voisine du lac de Lop. Tout ce pays est sterile, plein de sables, et Ton

The City of Chinchitalas 109

and contains cities and several strong places. Its inhabitants
consist of three religious sects. A few of them confess Christ,
according to the Nestorian doctrine; others are followers of
Mahomet; and a third class worship idols. There is in this
district a mountain where the mines produce steel, and also
zinc or antimony. 1 A substance is likewise found of the nature
of the salamander, for when woven into cloth, and thrown into
the fire, it remains incombustible. 2 The following mode of
preparing it I learned from one of my travelling companions,
named Curficar, a very intelligent Turkoman, who had the
direction of the mining operations of the province for three
years. The fossil substance procured from the mountain con
sists of fibres not unlike those of wool. This, after being ex
posed to the sun to dry, is pounded in a brass mortar, and is
then washed until all the earthy particles are separated. The
fibres thus cleansed and detached from each other, they then
spin into thread and weave into cloth. In order to render the
texture white, they put it into the fire, and suffer it to remain
there about an hour, when they draw it out uninjured by the
flame, and become white as snow. By the same process they
afterwards cleanse it, when it happens to contract spots, no
other abstergent lotion than an igneous one being ever applied
to it. 3 Of the salamander under the form of a serpent, sup-

y rencontre peu de bonnes terres. On y comptoit environ quinze
families. Ces peuples cherchent les paturages ou ils nourissent des anes,
des chevaux et des chameaux. Ils tirent des pays voisins leurs denrees :
ils ont les memes mceurs que les peuples du Tibet qui sont leurs voisins
au sud-est. . . . Je pense que c est dans ce canton qu il faut placer la
province que M. Paul appelle Chin-chin- talas, voisine du grand desert,
et ou il y avoit des Nestoriens, des Mahometans, et des idolatres." (Tom.
i. pt. ii. p. xi.) It may, however, be doubted whether Chinchitalas is
not the Cialis or Chialis of B. Goez, which he describes as a place de
pendent upon the king of Kashgar, and not far distant from Turfan and
Kamul.

1 Respecting this mineral, which in the Latin is andanicum or audani-
cum, and in the Italian of the epitomes, andranico and andronico, see
notes on pp. 56 and 71.

2 There can be no doubt that what the texts here call salamander was
really the asbestos. [The passage in the early Latin text is, " Et in ista
montana est una alia vena unde fit salamandra. Salamandra autem non
est bestia sicut dicitur quae vivat in igne, sed dicam vobis quomodo fit
salamandra.]

8 The asbestos is described as " a fossile stone that may be split into
threads or filaments, from one to ten inches in length, very fine, brittle,
yet somewhat tractable, silky, and of a greyish colour. It is indis
soluble in water, and endued with the wonderful property of remaining
hnconsumed in the fire." L asbeste a eu autrefois," says M. Brong-
|niart, des usages assez remarquables. Les anciens, qui bruloient les
corps, 1 ont employe comme drap incombustible pour conserver les cendres
des corps sans melange. Lorsque les filamens de cette pierre sont assez

1 10 Travels of Marco Polo

posed to exist in fire, I could never discover any traces in the
eastern regions. It is said that they preserve at Rome a
napkin woven from this material, in which was wrapped the
sudarium of our Lord, sent as a gift from one of the Tartar
princes to the Roman Pontiff.

CHAPTER XT

OF THE DISTRICT OF SUCCUIR, WHERE THE RHUBARB IS PRO
DUCED, AND FROM WHENCE IT IS CARRIED TO ALL PARTS
OF THE WORLD

UPON leaving the district last mentioned, and proceeding for
ten days in the direction of east-north-east, through a country
where there are few habitations, and little of any kind worthy
of remark, you arrive at a district named Succuir, in which
are many towns and castles, the principal one being likewise
named Succuir. 1 The inhabitants are in general idolaters,
with some Christians. 2 They are subject to the dominion of

longs, assez doux, et assez flexibles, on parvient a les filer, siir-tout si on
les mele avec du lin. On peut en tisser une toile qui a une soliditS et une
flexibility convenable, lors meme qu elle a ete privee, par le moyen du
feu, du fil vegetal qu elle contenoit. Lprsque cette toile est salie, le feu
lui rend son premier eclat." Trait6 elementaire de Mineralogie, torn. i.
P. 482.

1 This appears, from all the circumstances mentioned, to be intended
for So-cheu, a fortified town in the extreme western part of the province of
Shen-si, or frontier of China in that quarter. Formerly, however, it did not
belong to the empire, but to an independent Tartar nation. " Les places
les plus occidentals de la province de Chensi," says De Guignes, " ayant
fait partie de la Tartarie, nous croyons devoir les npmmer ici d autant
plus que ce que nous en diront pourra servir 6claircir M. Paul. . . .
Sous le regne des Spui, on appella tout ce pays So-tcheou. ... II passa
ensuite sous la domination des peuples du Toufan, et quelque terns aprs,
les Chinois le reprirent; il fait aujourd hui partie du Chensi." (Tom. i.
pt. ii. p. ix.) The first notice we have of this place, after the time of
our author, is by Shah Rokb s ambassadors, in 1420. Sekgiou (which
De Guignes, perhaps from a different translation, writes Sokjou) est une
ville grande et forte, en forme de quarre parfait. . . , cette yille est
done la premiere de Khatai, eloign6e de quatre-vingt-dix-neuf journeys
de la ville de Kan-Balik, qui est le lieu de la residence de rempereur,
par un pais tres-peup!6, car chaque journ6e on loge dans un gros bourg."

-Relations de Thevenot, torn. ii.

* During the long interval of three centuries that had elapsed between
our author s time and that of Benedict Goez, an entire change appears
to have taken place with respect to the Christian population, which he
no longer found to exist ; an effect that was produced by the ascendancy
of the Mahometans in that quarter.

The City of Kampion i 1 1

the grand khan. The extensive province, which contains these
and the two districts which shall be next mentioned, is called
Tanguth, and throughout all the mountainous parts of it the
most excellent kind of rhubarb is produced, in large quantities,
and the merchants who procure loadings of it on the spot con
vey it to all parts of the world. 1 It is a fact that when they take
that road, they cannot venture amongst the mountains with
any beasts of burthen excepting those accustomed to the
country, on account of a poisonous. plant growing there, which,
if eaten by them, has the effect of causing the hoofs of the
animal to drop off; but those of the country, being aware of
its dangerous quality, take care to avoid it. The people of
Succuir depend for subsistence upon the fruits of the earth and
the flesh of their cattle, and do not engage in trade. The
district is perfectly healthy, and the complexion of the natives
is brown.

CHAPTER XLI

OF THE CITY OF KAMPION, THE PRINCIPAL ONE OF THE PROVINCE
OF TANGUTH OF THE NATURE OF THEIR IDOLS, AND OF THE
MODE OF LIFE OF THOSE AMONGST THE IDOLATERS WHO ARE
DEVOTED TO THE SERVICES OF RELIGION OF THE ALMANAC
THEY MAKE USE OF AND THE CUSTOMS OF THE OTHER
INHABITANTS WITH REGARD TO MARRIAGE

KAMPION, the chief city of the province of Tanguth, 2 is large
and magnificent, and has jurisdiction over all the province. 3

1 The abundant growth of rhubarb in the mountainous region that
fgrms the western boundary of China, is noticed by all the writers who
have treated of these provinces. In the writings of Professor Pallas will
be found a particular account of the trade in this article, which the Rus
sians at Kiakta procure from the country of which we are speaking,
through the agency of merchants from Bucharia residing on the spot.

2 If it be admitted that Succuir is intended for So-cheu, it will follow
that Kam-pion, or as it appears in other versions, Kan-pion, Kam-pition,
and Kam-picion, is the city of Kan-cheu, the Kam-giou of the Persian
ambassadors, the Kam-chick of Johnson, and Kan-ceu of Goez. John
son mentions its being at the distance of five stages from the former.

3 The relative importance of Kan-cheu, with respect to So-cheu and
other towns in that part of Shen-si, has continued the same at all periods.
Shah Rokh s ambassadors observe, that the governor who resided there
was superior to all the other governors of bordering places; and Goez
says, " En 1 une de ces villes de la province de Scensi nominee Kanceu,
demeure le viceroy avec les autres principaux magistratz." P. 486.

1 1 2 Travels of Marco Polo

The bulk of the people worship idols, but there are some who
follow the religion of Mahomet,, and some Christians. The
latter have three large and handsome churches in the city. 1
The idolaters have many religious houses, or monasteries and
abbeys, built after the manner of the country, and in these a
multitude of idols, some of which are of wood, some of stone,
and some of clay, are covered with gilding. They are carved
in a masterly style. Among these are some of very large size,
and others are small. 2 The former are full ten paces in length,
and lie in a recumbent posture; the small figures stand behind
them, and have the appearance of disciples in the act of
reverential salutation. 3 Both great and small are held in
extreme veneration. Those persons amongst the idolaters who
are devoted to the services of religion lead more correct lives,
according to their ideas of morality, than the other classes,
abstaining from the indulgence of carnal and sensual appetites. 4

L The disappearance in the course of three centuries, or even in a much
shorter period, of these churches, which were probably built of wood, is
no argument against their having existed in our author s time. It was
not until the end of the sixteenth century that the Jesuits obtained a
footing in China, and began to investigate the subject of an earlier dis
semination of Christianity in that part of the world. During this inter
val an entire revolution had taken place in the Chinese government, and
the Yuen or Moghul-Tartar family, distinguished for its tolerance or in
difference in matters of religion, had been succeeded by the native dynasty
of the Ming, whose princes were influenced by a different policy, and
proscribed the lamas, as well as the Christian priests, to whom their pre
decessors were thought to have been too much attached. About this
period also the Mahometans, becoming numerous at Kashgar and other
places on the borders of the desert, were active and apparently success
ful in their endeavours to exterminate their rivals. A strong picture is
drawn by Goez, of the intolerant insolence of these bigots, in the towns
through which his route lay, from Hindustan, by the way of Lahore and
Cabul, to China.

8 In all countries where the religion of Buddha prevails, it appears to
be an object of religious zeal to erect images representing him of an enor
mous magnitude, and not unfreqnently to cover them with gilding.
This we find to be the practice in Japan, Siam, and Ava, as well as in
Tartary and China. Shaka-muni is one of the Hindu names of Buddha.
P. Gerbillon, who accompanied the emperor of China into Tartary,
speaks also of such gigantic images, one of which being measured with
a quadrant, was found to be fifty-seven Chinese feet in height.

3 Although the images of Buddha are usually represented sitting, with
the legs crossed, some of these monstrous statues are in a recumbent
posture, and surrounded with figures in an attitude of prayer or saluta
tion. The ambassadors who visited this city of Kan-cheu in 1420, men
tion idols of the same extraordinary kind, and in a striking manner con
firm the authenticity of our author s account. In every complete
temple," says Cordiner in his Description of Ceylon, " one colossal image
of Buddha is represented in a sleeping posture, and a great many others
Df the same, sitting and standing, not larger than the life." Vol. i. p. 150.
4 " Their sole occupation," says Turner, speaking of the religious
orders of Tibet. " lies in performing the duties of their faith. They are

Manners of Tangut 1 1 3

The unlicensed intercourse of the sexes is not in general con
sidered by these people as a serious offence; and their maxim
is, that if the advances are made by the female, the connexion
does not constitute an offence, but it is held to be such when
the proposal comes from the man. They employ an almanac,
in many respects like our own, according to the rules of which,
during five, four, or three days in the month, they do not shed
blood, nor eat flesh or fowl; as is our usage in regard to Friday,
the Sabbath, and the vigils of the saints. 1 The laity take to
themselves as many as thirty wives, some more, some fewer,
according to their ability to maintain them; for they do not
receive any dowry with them, but, on the contrary, settle
dowers upon their wives, in cattle, slaves, and money. 2 The
wife who is first married always maintains the superior rank
in the family; but if the husband observes that any one
amongst them does not conduct herself well to the rest, or if

exempt from labour; enjoined sobriety and temperance, and interdicted
all intercourse with the other sex." (P. 170 ) According to Morrison s
Chinese Dictionary, the priests of the sect of Fuh or Fo (who are deno
minated Hp-shang, Sang, and Shamun,) receive the five precepts:
Not to kill living creatures ; not to steal, or rob ; not to practise lewdness ;
not to say what is untrue; not to drink wine." P. 157.

1 " The same superstition," says Turner, that influences their view
of the affairs of the world, pervades equally their general calculations.
On this principle it is, that they frame their common calendar of time.
I have one now in my possession; and as far as I can understand it from
what has been explained to me, a recapitulation of lucky and unlucky
times constitutes the chief merit of the work." P. 320.

2 Nothing has hitherto occurred in the course of the work, in which
the direct assertion of our author is so much at variance with modern
information, as this of the prevalence of the custom of polygamy amongst
the people of Tangut. Bogle expressly tells us, that in the sense in
which we commonly receive the word, polygamy is not in use in Tibet ;
but that it exists in a manner still more repugnant to European ideas, in
the plurality of husbands; and that it is usual for the brothers in the
family to have a wife in common. (Phil. Trans, vol. Ixvii. p. 477, and
Craufurd s Sketches, vol. ii. p. 177.) This is confirmed by Turner, who
says: " The number of husbands is not, as far as I could learn, defined
or restricted within any limits; it sometimes happens that in a small
family there is but one female; and the number may seldom perhaps
exceed that, which a native of rank, during my residence at Teshoo
Loomboo, pointed out to me in a family resident in the neighbourhood,
in which five brothers were then living together very happily, with one
female, under the same connubial compact. Nor is this sort of league
confined to the lower ranks of people alone." (P. 349.) To these
authorities we can only oppose the qualified observation of M. Pallas,
who tells us that polygamy, though forbidden by their religion, is not
uncommon amongst the great. (Neue Nordische Beytrage, b. i. p.
204.) The distance, however, between Lhasa and Khan-cheu is so con
siderable (about ten degrees of latitude and eight of longitude) that
although the inhabitants of each, as well as of the greater part of Tartary,
follow the same religious worship, there may yet exist essential differences
in their domestic manners.

i 14 Travels of Marco Polo

she becomes otherwise disagreeable to him, he can send her
away. They take to their beds those who are nearly related
to them by blood, and even espouse their mothers-in-law.
Many other mortal sins are regarded by them with indifference,
and they live in this respect like the beasts of the field. In this
city Marco Polo remained, along with his father and uncle,
about the space of one year, which the state of their concerns
rendered necessary. 1

CHAPTER XLII

OF THE CITY OF EZINA OF THE KINDS OF CATTLE AND BIRDS
FOUND THERE AND OF A DESERT EXTENDING FORTY DAYS
JOURNEY TOWARDS THE NORTH

LEAVING this city of Kampion, and travelling for twelve days
in a northerly direction, you come to a city named Ezina, 2 at
the commencement of the sandy desert, and within the pro
vince of Tanguth. The inhabitants are idolaters. They have
camels, and much cattle of various sorts. Here you find
lanner-falcons and many excellent sakers. The fruits of the
soil and the flesh of the cattle supply the wants!)? the people,

1 It is remarkable that Goez, who, although a missionary, travelled in
the character of an Armenian merchant, was in like manner detained
upwards of a year at the neighbouring town of So-cheu. The regula
tions of police appear to have required then, as they do at this day, that
permission should be received from Peking before strangers are suffered
to advance into the country.

2 Having reached the borders of northern China, and spoken of two
places that are within the line of what is termed the Great Wall, (but
which will hereafter be shown to have consisted on this side of a mound
of earth only, and not to have been the stupendous work of masonry it
is described on the northern frontier,) our author ceases to pursue a
direct route, and proceeds to the account of places lying to the north
and south, some of them in the vicinity, and others in distant parts of
Tartary, according to the information he had acquired of them on various
occasions. Nor does he in the sequel furnish any distinct idea of the line
he took upon entering China, hi company with his father and uncle, on
their journey to the emperor s court; although from what occurs in
chap. lii. there is reason to believe that he went from Kan-cheu to Si-
ning (by Professor Pallas called Selin), and there fell into the great road
from Tibet to Peking. His description now takes a northerly course to
a place named Ezina, which stood on a small river which flows by Kan-
cheu towards the great desert of Kobi, which he had already crossed in
a more western and narrower part. This town is known to us from the
operations of Jengiz-khan, who took possession of it when he invaded
Tangut in 1224 according to Petis de la Croix, or 1226 according to De
Guignes, and made it for some time the head- quarters of his army.

The City of Karakoran 1 1 5

and they do not con^eni_theinsdv_es_ jwith trade. Travellers
passing^throvfgli triis city lay in a store of provisions for forty
days, because, upon their leaving it to proceed northwards,
that space of time is employed in traversing a desert, where
there is not any appearance of dwelling, nor are there any in
habitants excepting a few during the summer, among the
mountains and in some of the valleys. In these situations,
frequented by wild asses and other animals equally wild, 1 they
find water and woods of pine-trees. Having passed this desert,
you arrive at a city on the northern side of it, named Kara
koran. All the districts and cities previously mentioned, that
is to say, Sakion, Kamul, Chinchitalas, Succuir, Kampion, and
Ezina, belong to the great province of Tanguth.

CHAPTER XLIII

OF THE CITY OF KARAKORAN, THE FIRST IN WHICH THE TARTARS

FIXED THEIR RESIDENCE

THE city of Karakoran 2 is about three miles in circuit, and is
the first place in which the Tartars established their residence
in remote times. It is surrounded with a strong rampart of
earth, there not being any good supply of stone in that part
of the country. On the outside of the rampart, but near to it,
stands a castle of great size, in which is a handsome palace
occupied by the governor of the place.

1 The wild ass here mentioned is probably that animal which the
missionaries, rather unaccountably, call the wild mule, and describe as
an inhabitant of this desert region. The wild ass or onager is the equus
asinus of Linn., and the animal denominated the wild mule is the equus
hemionus.

2 The name of this city is properly written Kara-korum, but often
Kara-kum (signifying black sand). By the Chinese it is called Holin,
which answers to Korin in Tartar pronunciation. It was built, or rather
rebuilt, by Oktai-khan, the son and successor of Jengiz-khan, about the
year 1235; whose nephew, Mangu-khan, made it his principal residence.
No traces of it have been in existence for some centuries, but its position
is noted in the tables of Ulig-beig, and also in the Jesuits and D Anville s
maps. It was visited in the year 1254 by William de Rubruquis, a friar
minor, who together with some other ecclesiastics was sent by Louis IX.
of France on a general mission to the Tartar princes. The account he
gives of it conveys no high idea of its importance as a city, nor does his
description of the court, of the state of civilization to which these con
querors had attained: but his whole narrative exhibits the illiberal
prejudices of a vulgar mind.

1 1 6 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XLIV

OF THE ORIGIN OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TARTARS OF THE
QUARTER FROM WHENCE THEY CAME AND OF THEIR
FORMER SUBJECTION TO UN-KHAN, A PRINCE OF THE NORTH,
CALLED ALSO PRESTER JOHN

THE circumstances under which these Tartars first began to
exercise dominion shall now be related. They dwelt in the
northern countries of Jorza and Bargu, 1 but without fixed
habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where
there were extensive plains, good pasture, large rivers, and
plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their own, and were
tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been informed)
was named in their language, Un-khan, 2 by some thought to

1 What may be considered as the proper, although perhaps not the
most ancient country of the Moghuls, as they are called by the Persians,
or Mungals as the name is pronounced in the northern parts of Asia, in
cluding Kalmuks or Eleuts, Burats, and Kalkas, appears to be that tract
which lies between the upper streams of the Amur river on the east, and
those of the Yanisei and Irtish rivers, together with the Altai range of
mountains on the west; having on the north the Baikal lake, and on the
south the great desert, which separates it from the country of Tangut,
and the kingdom of China ; including within these boundaries the Sehnga
river, near to which, in the former part of the last century, was the urga
(station or encampment) of the Tush-du-khan or modern prince of the
Mungals. The exact situation of the plains of Giorza, Jorza, or Jorja,
and Bargu cannot be determined. In Strahlenberg s map there is a
district adjoining to the south shore of Baikal, named " Campus Bargu; "
but circumstances would lead us to suppose the places here spoken of to
lie further to the north, and in D Anville s map the name of Bargu appears
on the north-east side of that lake. According to Klaproth the name by
which the Manchou people (whom he considers to be the same race with
the Tungusi) are known to the Tartars, is Chur-chur or Jurjur, by Abu l-
ghazi written Jurjit. These seem to be the Jorza tribes of our author;
and the island of Zorza (to which criminals were banished) mentioned
in book iii. chap. 2, may be that which lies off the mouth of the Sagalien-
ula or river Amur.

* This celebrated prince, whom our author names Umcan, or, with an
allowable correction of the orthography of his language, Un-khan, and
whom the historian Abu lfaraj names Ung-khan, was chief of the tribe
of Kera-it or Kerrit, and reigned in Kara-korum, which was afterwards re
built by Oktai and became his capital, as well as that of Mangu-khan his
successor. He appears to have been the most powerful of the chiefs in that
part of Tartary, and in the histories of his time is often termed the grand
khan. By P. Gaubil, however, and those who follow the Chinese authori
ties, he is considered as a vassal of the Niu-tche Tartar emperor, Altun-
khan, of the dynasty of Kin, who, besides his kingdoms of Leao-ttmg
and Korea, ruled over the northern part of China, or Kataia. They
further assert that his appellation of Ouang-han, as they write it, is no
other than the Chinese title of Ouang or Vang (regulus], bestowed upon
him by the sovereign for distinguished services, prefixed to his native

Origin of the Tartars 1 1 7

have the same signification as Prester John in ours. 1 To him
these Tartars paid yearly the tenth part of (the increase of)
their cattle. In process of time the tribe multiplied so exceed
ingly that Un-khan, that is to say, Prester John, becoming
apprehensive of their strength, conceived the plan of separating
them into different bodies, who should take up their abode in
distinct tracts of country. With this view also, whenever the
occasion presented itself, such as a rebellion in any of the pro
vinces subject to him, he drafted three or four in the hundred of
these people, to be employed on the service of quelling it ; and
thus their power was gradually diminished. He in like manner
despatched them upon other expeditions, and sent among them
some of his principal officers to see that his intentions were
carried into effect. At length the Tartars, becoming sensible
of the slavery to which he attempted to reduce them, resolved
to maintain a strict union amongst themselves, and seeing that
nothing short of their final ruin was in contemplation, they
adopted the measure of removing from the places which they
then inhabited, and proceeded in a northerly direction across a
wide desert, until they felt assured that the distance afforded
them security, when they refused any longer to pay to Un-khan
the accustomed tribute. 2

title of khan, his original name having been Toghrul. According to
J. R. Forster, following the authority of Fischer s Hist, of Siberia, " he
reigned over the Karaites, a tribe residing near the river Kallassui
(Karasibi), which discharges itself into the Abakan, and afterwards into
the Jenisea; and here at this very day live the Kirgises, who have a
tribe among them which they call Karaites." Voyages, etc. p. 141.

1 Whatever absurdity and ridicule may be thought to attach to this
extraordinary appellation of Prester or Presbyter John, as applied to a
Tartar prince, it is not to be placed to the account of our author, who
only repeats, and in terms of particular caution, what had already been
current throughout Europe and amongst the Christians of Syria and
Egypt, respecting this imaginary sacerdotal character, but real person
age. Nothing is here asserted on his own knowledge; the transactions
were understood to have taken place nearly a century before the time
when he wrote, and in speaking of them he employs the guarded ex
pression, " come intesi" [The best information on the subject of Prester
John will be found in the Introduction to the " Relation des Mongols ou
Tartares; par le frere Jean du Plan de Carpin," by M. D Avezac.]

2 This assertion of independence is attributed by the Persian and
Arabian historians to the enterprising character and military talents of
Temujin (afterwards Jengiz-khan), who, when he had passed eighteen
years in the service of Ung-khan, became the object of his jealousy, and
was compelled to a precipitate flight in order to save his life. The suc
cessful issue of some partial engagements that ensued having increased
considerably the number of those who were attached to him, he retired,
with his little army, to the country of the Mungals, of which he was a
native. Being received with open arms, he concerted with them his
schemes of vengeance against his enemies.

1 1 8 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XLV

CONCERNING CHINGIS-KHAN, FIRST EMPEROR OF THE TARTARS,
AND HIS WARFARE WITH UN-KHAN, WHOM HE OVERTHREW,
AND OF WHOSE KINGDOM HE POSSESSED HIMSELF

SOME time after the migration of the Tartars to this place, and
about the year of our Lord 1162* they proceeded to elect for
their king a man who was named Chingis-khan, one of approved
integrity, great wisdom, commanding eloquence, and eminent
for his valour. He began his reign with so much justice and
moderation, that he was beloved and revered as their deity
rather than their sovereign ; and the fame of his great and good
qualities spreading over that part of the world, all the Tartars,
however dispersed, placed themselves under his command.
Finding himself thus at the head of so many brave men, he
became ambitious of emerging from the deserts and wilder
nesses by which he was surrounded, and gave them orders to
equip themselves with bows and such other weapons as they
were expert at using, from the habits of their pastoral life.
He then proceeded to render himself master of cities and
provinces; and such was the effect produced by his character
for justice and other virtues, that wherever he went, he found
the people disposed to submit to him, and to esteem them
selves happy when admitted to his protection and favour. In
this manner he acquired the possession of about nine pro
vinces. Nor is his success surprising, when we consider that
at this period each town and district was either governed by
the people themselves, or had its petty king or lord; and as
there existed amongst them no general confederacy, it was
impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a
power. Upon the subjugation of these places, he appointed
governors to them, who were so exemplary in their conduct
that the inhabitants did not suffer, either in their persons or

1 Our author appears in this instance to have mistaken the year of
Jengiz-khan s birth (though some place it in 1155) for that of his eleva
tion to the throne. It was not until the year 1201 that he is stated
to have acquired the command of the Mungal armies, nor until 1202
according to the authorities followed by Petis de la Croix, or 1206 accord
ing to De Guignes, that he was declared grand khan or emperor. About
the same period it was that he changed his original name of Temujin for
that by which he was afterwards known. The Latin and other texts
give this date as 1187.

Jengiz-Khan 1 19

their properties ; and he likewise adopted the policy of taking
along with him, into other provinces, the principal people, on
whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities. 1 Seeing how
prosperously his enterprises succeeded, he resolved upon
attempting still greater things. With this view he sent am
bassadors to Prester John, charged with a specious message,
which he knew at the same time would not be listened to by
that prince, demanding his daughter in marriage. 2 Upon
receiving the application, the monarch indignantly exclaimed :
" Whence arises this presumption in Chingis-khan, who, know
ing himself to be my servant, dares to ask for the hand of my
child? Depart instantly," he said, " and let him know from
me, that upon the repetition of such a demand, I shall put him
to an ignominious death." Enraged at this reply, Chingis-
khan collected a very large army, at the head of which he
entered the territory of Prester John, and encamping on a
great plain called Tenduk, sent a message desiring him to
defend himself. The latter advanced likewise to the plain with
a vast army, and took his position at the distance of about ten
miles from the other. 3 In this conjuncture Chingis-khan
commanded his astrologers and magicians to declare to him
which of the two armies, in the approaching conflict, should
obtain the victory. Upon this they took a green reed, and
dividing it lengthways into two parts, they wrote upon one the
name of their master, and upon the other the name of Un-khan.
They then placed them on the ground, at some distance from
each other, and gave notice to the king that during the time of

1 It was at the court of the grandson of Jengiz-khan that our author
acquired an idea much too favourable of the virtues, although not per
haps of the military talents, of this extraordinary man, who should be
regarded as one of those scourges of mankind, which, like plague, pestil
ence, or famine, is sent from time to time to visit and desolate the world.

2 According to the writers whom Petis de la Croix has followed, Temujin
had been already married to the daughter of Ung-khan, when the in
trigues of his rivals drove him from the court of his father-in-law, to
whom he had rendered the most important military services.

3 The name of this plain, which in the older Latin as well as in Ramu-
sio s text is Tenduch, and in the Basle edition Tanduc, is Tangut in the
Italian epitomes. This last may probably be a mistake, and certainly
this place is not to be confounded with the Tangut already spoken of as
connected with Tibet; but there is much reason to suppose that our
author meant the country of the Tungusi (a name that bears no slight
resemblance to Tangut), which is about the sources of the Amur, and in
the vicinity of the Baikal lake. According to De Guignes and P. Gaubil,
the meeting of the armies took place between the rivers Toula and Kerlon,
where other great Tartar battles have since been fought, in consequence,
as may be presumed, of the local circumstances being suited to the opera
tions of large bodies of cavalry.

1 20 Travels of Marco Polo

their pronouncing their incantations, the two pieces of reed,
through the power of their idols, would advance towards each
other, and that the victory would fall to the lot of that monarch
whose piece should be seen to mount upon the other. The
whole army was assembled to be spectators of this ceremony,
and whilst the astrologers were employed in reading their books
of necromancy, they perceived the two pieces begin to move
and to approach, and after some small interval of time, that
inscribed with the name of Chingis-khan to place itself upon
the top of its adversary. 1 Upon witnessing this, the king and
his band of Tartars marched with exultation to the attack of
the army of Un-khan, broke through its ranks and entirely
routed it. Un-khan himself was killed, his kingdom fell to the
conqueror, and Chingis-khan espoused his daughter. After
this battle he continued during six years to render himself
master of additional kingdoms and cities; until at length, in
the siege of a castle named Thaigin, 2 he was struck by an arrow
in the knee, and dying of the wound, was buried in the moun
tain of Altai.

CHAPTER XLVI

OF SIX SUCCESSIVE EMPERORS OF THE TARTARS, AND OF THE
CEREMONIES THAT TAKE PLACE WHEN THEY ARE CARRIED
FOR INTERMENT TO THE MOUNTAIN OF ALTAI

To Chingis-khan succeeded Cyhn-khan; the third was Bathyn-
khan, the fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mongu-khan, the sixth
Kublai-khan, 3 who became greater and more powerful than all

1 The mode of divination by what the French terra baguettes is common
in the East. Petis de la Croix upon introducing into his text this story
of " la canne verte," from our author s work, observes in a note: " Cette
operation des Cannes a ete en usage chez les Tartares, et Test encore a
present chez les Africains, chez les Turcs et autres nations Mahometanes."
-P. 65.

8 The accident here said to have befallen Jengiz-khan is not mentioned
by any of the historians; nor does it appear what place is intended by
the name of Thaigin. He is said, on the contrary, to have died of sick
ness (in 1226), shortly after the reduction of the city of Lin-tao, in the
province of Shen-si, from whence he had retired, on account of the bad
quality of the air where his army was encamped, to a mountain named
Leou-pan. It is not, however, to be concluded that our author is there
fore wrong, or that Jengiz did not receive a wound, which in an un
wholesome climate might have occasioned or accelerated his death.

3 This account of the successors of Jengiz-khan being so much less
accurate than might be expected from one who was many years in the

History of the Tartars 1 2 1

the others, inasmuch as he inherited what his predecessors
possessed, and afterwards, during a reign of nearly sixty

service of his grandson, it is not unreasonable to presume that some of
the barbarous names of these princes may have been omitted and others
disfigured by the early transcribers. We are the more warranted in this
supposition, because in the different versions we find the names to vary
considerably; and instead of the Chyn, Bathyn, and Esu of Ramusio s
edition, we have in one text Cui, Barchim, and Allau, and in another,
Carce, Saim, and Rocon. In the name of Mongu, or Mangu, only they
are all nearly agreed. As the most effectual way of detecting, and in
some instances of reconciling the inaccuracies, I shall state the filiation
according to the authority of historians, and compare with it the con
fused lists attributed to our author.

Jengiz-khan, who died about the end of the year 1226, had four sons,
whose names were Juji, Jagatal, Oktai, and Tuli ; of these Juji, the eldest,
who in other dialects is called Tushi and Dushi, died during the lifetime
of Jengiz, leaving a son named Batu, called also, by the Mahometan
writers, Saien-khan and Sagin-khan. He inherited, in right of his
father, that portion of the empire which included Kapchak and other
countries in the neighbourhood of the Wolga and the Don ; and his con
quests on the side of Russia, Poland, and Hungary, rendered him the
terror of Europe. He did not succeed to the dignity of grand khan, or
head of the family, and died in 1256. This was evidently the Bathyn of
one version of our text, and the Saim of another; but the Barchim of a
third seems rather to be intended for Barkah, his brother and successor.
Jagatai, or Zagatai, had for his portion of his father s dominions the
country beyond the Oxus, Turkistan, or, as it has since been termed, the
country of the Uzbek Tartars. He died in 1240, and also without having
succeeded to the imperial dignity. His name, although elsewhere men
tioned by our author, is here omitted, as would on that account have
been proper, if the name of Batu had not been introduced. Oktai, or
Ugdai, the third son, was declared by Jengiz his successor as grand khan,
or supreme head of the dynasty, with the new title of kaan. His parti
cular share of the empire was the original country of the Moghuls or
Mungals, with its dependencies, and the kingdom of the Niu-tch6 Tartars,
including so much of Northern China as was then conquered. The total
omission of his name, who was one of the most distinguished of the
family, and particularly in the wars of the last-mentioned country, not
more than thirty-five years oefore the arrival of our author, is quite
extraordinary, if to be imputed to ignorance or want of recollection on
his part. Oktai died in 1241, and was succeeded in the imperial station
(after a female regency of five years) by his son Kaiuk, or Gaiuk, who
reigned only one year, and died in 1248. By Piano Carpini, a friar minor,
(who was sent by Pope Innocent IV. to the court of Batu, whom he terms
the Duke Baatu or Bathy, and by him to Gaiuk, his sovereign, then
newly elected,) he is named Cuyne, by the Chinese Key-yeu, and by our
author Chyn or Cui, according to different readings. The fourth son of
Jengiz, whose name was Tuli or Tului, died in 1232, during the reign of
his brother Oktai, leaving four sons, named Mangu, Kublai, Hulagu,
and Artigbuga, besides others of less historical fame. Of these, Mangu
or Mongu was chosen, in 1251, to succeed his cousin Gaiuk as grand khan,
and chiefly through the influence of Batu, who had a superior claim, as
the son of the eldest brother, but seems not to have affected that dignity.
One of the first acts of Mangu was to send Hulagu (from Kara-korum,
his capital) with a powerful army that enabled him to subdue the coun
tries of Khorasan, Persia, Chaldea, and a great part of Syria. He
founded the great dynasty of the Moghuls of Persia, which after a few
generations threw off its dependence, more nominal than real, upon the

122 Travels of Marco Polo

years/ acquired, it may be said, the remainder of the world.
The title of khan or kaan, is equivalent to emperor in our
language. It has been an invariable custom, that all the grand
khans, and chiefs of the race of Chingis-khan, should be carried
for interment to a certain lofty mountain named Altai , and in
whatever place they may happen to die, although it should be
at the distance of a hundred days journey, they are neverthe
less conveyed thither. It is likewise the custom, during the
progress of removing the bodies of these princes, for those who
form the escort to sacrifice such persons as they chance to meet
on the road, saying to them, " Depart for the next world,
and there attend upon your deceased master," being impressed
with the belief that all whom they thus slay do actually become
his servants in the next life. They do the same also with
respect to horses, killing the best of the stud, in order that he
may have the use of them. When the corpse of Mongu was
transported to this mountain, the horsemen who accompanied
it, having this blind and horrible persuasion, slew upwards of
twenty thousand persons who fell in their way. 2

head of the empire. The name of Hulagu, which in other parts of the
work is softened to Alau, seems to be that which is here still further cor
rupted to Esu, by the mistake of a letter, for Elu. In the Latin version
of the same passage it is Allau. Mangu died in 1259 ( or J 256), in the
province of Se-chuen in China, whilst engaged in the prosecution of the
war in that country. Respecting his name there is no ambiguity.
Kublai, who was upon the spot, assumed the command of the army, and
was soon after chosen grand khan, although with much opposition on
the part of his brother Artigbuga, who was strongly supported, and ven
tured to set up the imperial standard at Kara-korum. Kublai pro
ceeded, in 1268, to subdue the kingdom of Manji, or Southern China, at
that time ruled by the dynasty of Song, whose capital, named Hong-
cheu, was taken in 1276, and the whole was annexed to his empire in
1280; from which year his reign, as emperor of China, is made to com
mence in the Chinese annals, where he appears by the title of Yuen-chi-
tsu. His death is placed in the beginning of 1294, being then in the
eightieth year of his age. He was the fifth grand khan of this family, and
after his decease the descendants of their common ancestor, who ruled
the provinces in the west and south, no longer acknowledged a para
mount sovereign.

1 As Kublai was elected grand khan in 1260, and died in 1294, his
reign was strictly about thirty- four years; but having been appointed
viceroy to his brother Mangu, in China, so early as 1251, it may be con
sidered as having lasted forty- three; and he was probably employed
there in the command of armies at a period still earlier. The assertion,
however, of his having reigned sixty years cannot be justified, and must
have originated in a mistake or transposition of figures, which should
perhaps have been XL instead of LX.

* The existence of such an atrocious custom amongst the Monghul
Tartars has been questioned. But the Chinese annals are not without
instances of the practice of immolation at funerals; and we find that, so
late as the year 1661, the Tartar emperor Shun-chi commanded a human
sacrifice upon the death of a favourite mistress. Voluit tamen," says

Wandering Life of the Tartars 123

CHAPTER XLVII

OF THE WANDERING LIFE OF THE TARTARS OF THEIR DOMESTIC
MANNERS, THEIR FOOD, AND THE VIRTUE AND USEFUL
QUALITIES OF THEIR WOMEN

Now that I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I will tell you
more about them. The Taxtarsjiever remain fixed, but as the
winter approaches remove to the plains of a warmer region, in
order to find sufficient pasture for their cattle; and in summer
they frequent cold situations in the mountains* where there is
water and verdure, and their cattle are free from the annoyance
of horse-flies and other biting insects. During two or three
months they progressively ascend higher ground, and seek
fresh pasture, the grass not being adequate in any one place to
feed the multitudes of which their herds and flocks consist. 1
Their huts or tents are formed of rods covered with felt, and

P. Couplet, " triginta hominum spent anea morte placari manes concu-
binae, ritu apud Sinas execrando, quern barbarum morem successor deinde
sustulit." (Tab. Chronological Monarchies Sinicse, p. joo.) In the
account of the conquest of China by the Mantchou Tartars, written by
the Jesuit Martinius, we are told that the Mantchou king Tien-ming, in
vading China to avenge the murder of his father, swore that, in allusion
to the customs of the Tartars, he would celebrate the funeral of the mur
dered king by the slaughter of two hundred thousand Chinese. This
supports Marco Polo s story in a remarkable manner. The number
stated to have been sacrificed by those who accompanied the body of
Mangu-khan varies considerably in the. different versions, and in the epi
tomes is made to amount to 300,000. Marsden s text states it at 10,000,
but the authority of the early manuscripts seems to be in favour of the
number given in our text.

1 This periodical migration of the Tartar tribes is matter of so much
notoriety, that our author s account of it scarcely needs to be corro
borated by authorities ; but the following passage from Du Halde will
be found circumstantially applicable: Tous les Mongous vivent aussi
de la meme maniere, errans $&. et 1 avec leurs troupeaux, et demeurans
campez dans les lieux ou ils sont commodement, et ou ils trouvcnt le
meilleur fourage. En ete ils se placent ordinairement dans des lieux
decouverts pres de quelque riviere ou de quelque etang, et s il n y en a
point, aux environs de quelque puits : en hy ver ils cherchent les montagnes
et les collines, ou du moms ils s etablissent derriere quelque hauteur, ou
ils soient a convert du vent de Nord, qui est en ce pays-li extremement
froid; la niege supplee & 1 eau qui leur manque. Chaque souverain
demeure dans son pays, sans qu il soit permis ni & lui, ni & ses sujets,
d aller dans les terres des autres; mais dans Petendue des terres qui leur
appartiennent ils campent ou ils voulent." (Tom. iv. p. 38.) " The
summer station," says Elphinstone, is called eilauk, and the winter
station kishlauk, two words which both the Afghauns and Persians have
borrowed from the Tartars." -Account of Caubul, p. 390.

124 Travels of Marco Polo

being exactly round, and nicely put together, they can gathei
them into one bundle, and make them up as packages, which
they carry along with them in their migrations, upon a sort of
car with four wheels. 1 When they have occasion to set them
up again, they always make the entrance front to the south. 2
Besides these cars they have a superior kind of vehicle upon
two wheels, covered likewise with black felt, and so effectually
as to protect those within it from wet, during a whole day of
rain. These are drawn by oxen and camels, and serve to con
vey their wives and children, their utensils, and such provisions
as they require. 3 The women it is who attend to their trading
concerns, who buy and sell, and provide everything necessary
for their husbands and their families ; 4 the time of the men
being entirely devoted to hunting and hawking, and matters
that relate to the military life. They have the best falcons
in the world, and also the best dogs. They subsist entirely

1 The tents are thus described by Bell, as he saw them among the Kal
muks, encamped near the Wolga: " The Tartars had their tents pitched
along the river side. These are of a conical figure; there are several
long poles" erected inclining to each other, which are fixed at the top into
something like a hoop, that forms the circumference of an aperture for
letting out the smoke or admitting the light: across the poles are laid
some small rods, from four to six feet long, and fastened to them by
thongs. This frame is covered with pieces of felt, made of coarse wool
and hair. These tents afford better shelter than any other kind, and
are so contrived as to be set up, taken down, folded, and packed up, with
great ease and quickness, and so light that a camel may carry five or six
of them." (Tom. i. p. 29.) See also Du Halde.

2 " When they take downe their dwelling houses (from off their carts),
they turn the doores always to the south." (Purchas, Journal of Rubru-
quis, vol. iii. p. 3.) This opening of the door-way to the south appears
to be the universal practice in Tartary, as well with fixed as with move-
able houses, in order to guard as much as possible against the rude effects
of the northerly wind. It will be seen hereafter that the same custom
subsists in the northern provinces of China.

3 " They make certayne four-square baskets of small slender wickers
as bigge as great chests; and afterward, from one side to another, they
frame an hollow Hdde or cover of such like wickers, and make a doore in
the fore-side thereof. And then they cover the said chest or little house
with black felt, rubbed over with tallow or sheep s milk to keep the rain
from soaking through, which they deck likewise with painting or with
feathers. And in such chests they put their whole household-stuffe and
treasure. Also the same chests they do strongly binde upon other carts,
which are drawne with camels." Purchas, vol. iii. p. 3.

* This custom of the men committing to the females the management
of their trading concerns, is authenticated by P. Gerbillon, who accom
panied the emperor Kanghi in his expeditions. (Du Halde, torn. iv. p.
115.) Elphinstone, also, speaking of a tribe in the Afghan country,
called Hazoureh, and whom he considers as the remnant of a Tartar
army left there, remarks that " the wife manages the house, takes care
of the property, does her share of the honours, and is very much con
sulted in all her husband s measures."- Account of Caubul, p. 483.

The Tartar Women 125

upon flesh and milk, eating the produce of their sport, and a
certain small animal, not unlike a rabbit, called by our people
Pharaoh s mice, which, during the summer season are found
in great abundance in the plains. 1 But they likewise eat flesh
of every description, horses, camels, and even dogs, provided
they are fat. They drink mares milk, which they prepare in
such a manner that it has the qualities and flavour of white
wine. They term it in their language kemurs. 2 Their women
are not excelled in the world for chastity and decency of con
duct, nor for love and duty to their husbands. Infidelity to
the marriage bed is regarded by them as a vice not merely dis
honourable, but of the most infamous nature; 3 whilst on the
other hand it is admirable to observe the loyalty of the hus
bands towards their wives, amongst whom, although there are
perhaps ten or twenty, there prevails a degree of quiet and
union that is highly laudable. No offensive language is ever
heard, their attention being fully occupied with their traffic
(as already mentioned) and their several domestic employ
ments, such as the provision of necessary food for the family,

1 " On these hills (near the Selinga river) are a great number of animals
called marmots, of a brownish colour, having feet like a badger, and
nearly of the same size. They make deep burrows on the declivities of
the hills ; and it is said that in winter they continue in these holes, for a
certain time, even without food. At this season, however, they sit or
lie near their burrows, keeping a strict watch, and at the approach of
danger rear themselves on their hind feet, giving a loud whistle, and then
drop into their holes in a moment." (Bell s Travels, vol. i. p. 311.) The
description given of the animal by Du Halde accords best with our
author s account: Get animal (aussi petit qu une hermine) est une
espece de rat de terre, fort commun dans certains quartiers des Kalkas.
Les tael-pi se tiennent sous la terre, ou ils creusent une suite d autant de
petites tanieres qu il y a de males dans leur troupe: un d eux est toujours
au dehors, qui fait le guet, mais qui fuit des qu il appercoit quelqu un,
et se precipite en terre aussitot qu on s approche de mi. . . . On en prend
a la fois un tres-grand nombre." Tom. iv. p. 30.

1 The word here written chemurs or kemurs, and in the Latin edition

purpose, as it would seem, of separating the butter), and by such process
rendered intoxicating to a certain degree. It will in this state bear keep
ing for several months, and is the favourite drink of all the tribes of Tar
tars. The national beverage of the Uzbeks, Elphinstone observes,
is kimmiz, an intoxicating liquor, well known to be prepared from
mares milk." (P. 470.) This (distilled) spirit, although produced from
the same materials, must be distinguished from the kimmuz, with which,
however, it is confounded by some writers. Rubruquis furnishes a cir
cumstantial account of these preparations of milk in all their stages.

It must be observed," says Bell, " to the honour of their women,
that they are very honest and sincere, and few of them lewd: adultery
is a crime scarce ever heard of." Vol. i. p. 31.

126 Travels of Marco Polo

the management of the servants, and the care of the children,
which are amongst them a common concern. And the more
praiseworthy are the virtues of modesty and chastity in the
wives, because the men are allowed the indulgence of taking as
many as they choose. 1 Their expense to the husband is not
great, and on the other hand the benefit he derives from their
trading, and from the occupations in which they are constantly
engaged, is considerable; on which account it is, that when he
receives a young woman in marriage, he pays a dower to her
parent. 2 The wife who is the first espoused has the privilege
of superior attention, and is held to be the most legitimate,
which extends also to the children borne by her. In conse
quence of this unlimited number of wives, the offspring is more
numerous than amongst any other people. Upon the death of
the father, the son may take to himself the wives he leaves
behind, with the exception of his own mother. They cannot
take their sisters to wife, but upon the death of their brothers
they can marry their sisters-in-law. 3 Every marriage is
solemnized with great ceremony.

CHAPTER XLVIII

OF THE CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL DEITIES OF THE TARTARS,
AND OF THEIR MODES OF WORSHIP OF THEIR DRESS, ARMS,
COURAGE IN BATTLE, PATIENCE UNDER PRIVATIONS, AND
OBEDIENCE TO THEIR LEADERS

THE doctrine and faith of the Tartars are these : They believe
in a deity whose nature is sublime and heavenly. To him

1 " Quoique la polygamie," says P. Gerbillon, " ne soit plus defendue
parmi eux, ils n ont ordinairement qu une femme." (Du Halde, torn,
iv. p. 39.) The practice is described by other writers as more general;
but in one tribe it may be more prevalent than in others.

1 " Ils ne donnent point de douaire a leurs femmes/ ^says Thevenot,
" mais les maris font des presens a leur pere et & leur frere sans lesqueis
ils ne trouveroient point de femmes." (Relation des Tar tares, torn. i.
p. 19.) " As touching marriages," says Rubruquis, " no man can have
a wife till he hath bought her." Purchas, vol. iii. p. 7.

8 " II n y a que cette difference," adds the translator of Abu lghazi,
" entre les Tartares Mahometans et les autres, que les premiers observent
quelques degres de parente dans lesquels il leur est defendu de se marier,
au lieu que les Callmoucks et Moungales, Fexception de leurs meres
naturelles, n observent aucune proximite du sang dans leurs manages."
(P. 36, note.) " The sonne," says Rubruquis, marrieth sometimes
all his father s wives except his owne mother." Purchas, vol. iii. p. 7.

Religion of the Tartars i 27

they burn incense in censers, and offer up prayers for the en
joyment of intellectual and bodily health. 1 They worship
another likewise, named Natigay, whose image, covered with
felt or other cloth, every individual preserves in his house.
To this deity they associate a wife and children, placing the
former on his left side, and the latter before him, in a posture
of reverential salutation. Him they consider as the divinity
who presides over their terrestrial concerns, protects their
children, and guards their cattle and their grain. 2 They
show him great respect, and at their meals they never omit to
take a fat morsel of the flesh, and with it to grease the mouth
of the idol, and at the same time the mouths of its wife and
children. They then throw out of the door some of. the
liquor in which the meat has been dressed, as an offering to
the other spirits. 3 This being done, they consider that their
deity and his family have had their proper share, and proceed
to eat and drink without further ceremony. The rich amongst

1 " The religion of the Buraty," says Bell, " seems to be the same with
that of the Kalmucks, which is downright paganism of the grossest kind.
They talk, indeed, of an almighty and good Being, who created all things,
whom they call Burchun; but seem bewildered in obscure and fabulous
notions concerning his nature and government. They have two high
priests, to whom they pay great respect; one is called Delay-lama, the
other Kutukhtu." (Bell s Travels, vol. i. p. 248.) " The Mongalls
believe in and worship one almighty Creator of all things. They hold
that the Kutukhtu is God s vicegerent on earth, and that there will be
a future state of rewards and punishments." (P. 281.) " I am informed
that the religion of the Tonguts is the same with that of the Mongalls;
that they hold the same opinions with respect to the transmigration of
the Delay-lama as the Mongalls do about the Kutukhtu, and that he is
elected in the same manner." (P. 283.) The hierarchy of which the
Dalai or Grand Lama is generally considered as the head, was not es
tablished until so late as about the year 1426, according to Gaubil; but
the lamas simply, as priests of Shakia-muni, appear to have existed from
a remote period, and the shamuns, in the northern parts of Tartary, to
be lamas in a ruder state of society. The Kutukhtus stand in the same
relation to the Grand Lama as the cardinals, or perhaps more nearly the
cardinal-legates, to the pope.

2 This Tartar idol, whose name is written Natagai in the Latin editions,
and Nachigai in the Italian epitomes, is the Itoga of Plan de Carpin; by
whom the superstitious practices of these people are described in the
following manner: Us s adonnent fort aux predictions, augures, vol
des oiseaux, sorcelleries, et enchantemens. Lorsque le diable leur fait
quelque r6ponse, ils croient que cela vient de Dieu meme, et le nommerit
Itoga." Bergeron, p. 32.

1 Then goeth a servant out of the house," says Rubruquis, " with a
cup full of drinke, sprinkling it thrice towards the south, etc. . .
When the master holdeth a cup in his hand to drinke, before he tasteth
thereof, he poureth his part upon the ground." (Purchas, vol. iii. p. 4.)
[The words in the early Latin text of our author are, " Postea accipiunt
de brodio et projiciunt super eum per ostium domus suae cameras ubi
stat ille deus eorum."]

1 28 Travels of Marco Polo

these people dress in cloth of gold and silks, with skins oi
the sable, the ermine,, and other animals. All their accoutre
ments are of an expensive kind. Their arms are bows, iron
maces, and in some instances, spears; but the first is the
weapon at which they are the most expert, being accustomed,
from children, to employ it in their sports. 1 They wear
defensive armour made of the thick hides of buffaloes and
other beasts, dried by the fire, and thus rendered extremely
hard and strong. They are brave in battle, almost to des
peration, setting little value upon their lives, and exposing
themselves without hesitation to all manner of danger. Their
disposition is cruel. They are capable of supporting every
kind of privation, and when there is a necessity for it, can
live for a month on the milk of their mares, and upon such
wild animals as they may chance to catch. Their horses are
fed upon grass alone, and do not require barley or other
grain. The men are habituated to remain on horseback during
two days and two nights, without dismounting; sleeping in
that situation whilst their horses graze. No people upon earth
can surpass them in fortitude under difficulties, nor show
greater patience under wants of every kind. They are pre-
fectly obedient to their chiefs, and are maintained at small
expense. From these qualities, so essential to the formation
of soldiers, it is, that they are fitted to subdue the world, as in
fact they have done in regard to a considerable portion of it.

CHAPTER XLIX

OF THE TARTAR ARMIES, AND THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE
CONSTITUTED OF THEIR ORDER OF MARCHING OF THEIR
PROVISIONS AND OF THEIR MODE OF ATTACKING THE
ENEMY

WHEN one of the great Tartar chiefs proceeds on an expedi
tion, he puts himself at the head of an army of an hundred
thousand horse, and organises them in the following manner.
He appoints an officer to the command of every ten men, and
others to command an hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand
men, respectively. Thus ten of the officers commanding ten

1 " They are armed," says Bell, " with bows and arrows, a sabre and
lance, which they manage with great dexterity, acquired by constant
practice from their infancy." -Vol. i. p. 30.

Tartar Warfare 1 2 9

men take their orders from him who commands a hundred;
of these, each ten, from him who commands a thousand; and
each ten of these latter, from him who commands ten thou
sand. By this arrangement each officer has only to attend to
the management of ten men or ten bodies of men; and when
the commander of these hundred thousand men has occasion
to make a detachment for any particular service, he issues his
orders to the commanders of ten thousand to furnish him
with a thousand men each; and these, in like manner, to the
commanders of a thousand, who give their orders to those
commanding a hundred, until the order reaches those com
manding ten, by whom the number required is immediately
supplied to their superior officers. A hundred men are in
this manner delivered to every officer commanding a thou
sand, and a thousand men to every officer commanding ten
thousand. 1 The drafting takes place without delay, and all
are implicitly obedient to their respective superiors. Every
company of a hundred men is denominated a tuc, and ten of
these constitute a toman. 2 When the army proceeds on ser
vice, a body of men is sent two days march in advance, and
parties are stationed upon each flank and in the rear, in order
to prevent its being attacked by surprise. When the service
is distant, they carry but little with them, and that, chiefly
what is requisite for their encampment, and utensils for cook
ing. They subsist for the most part upon milk, as has been
said. Each man has, on an average, eighteen horses and
mares, and when that which they ride is fatigued, they change
it for another. They are provided with small tents made of
felt, under which they shelter themselves against rain. Should
circumstances render it necessary, in the execution of a duty
that requires despatch, they can march for ten days together
without dressing victuals, during which time they subsist upon
the blood drawn from their horses, each man opening a vein,
and drinking from his own cattle. 3 They make provision also

1 The correctness of our author s account of the constitution of the
Mungal armies will appear from comparing it with the detailed account
in the French translation of Abu lghazi s History of the Tartars.

2 Toman is the usual Persian term for a body of 10,000 men. The
word tuc, as signifying " a hundred," is not to be found in the diction
aries. It may, perhaps, be an orthographical corruption of duz, sus,
yuz, by which that number is expressed in the dialects of different Tartar
tribes.

The Scythian or Sarmatian practice of drawing blood from horses,
as an article of sustenance or luxurious indulgence, and also that of
preserving milk for use, in a concrete form, were well known to the
ancients.

E

i 30 Travels of Marco Polo

of milk, thickened and dried to the state of a hard paste (or
curd), which is prepared in the following manner. They boil
the milk, and skimming off the rich or creamy part as it rises
to the top, put it into a separate vessel as butter; for so long
as that remains in the milk, it will not become hard. The
latter is then exposed to the sun until it dries. Upon going on
service they carry with them about ten pounds for each man,
and of this, half a pound is put, every morning, into a leathern
bottle, or small outre, with as much water as is thought neces
sary. By their motion in riding the contents are violently
shaken, and a thin porridge is produced, upon which they make
their dinner. 1 When these Tartars come to engage in battle,
they never mix with the enemy, but keep hovering about him,
discharging their arrows first from one side and then from the
other, occasionally pretending to fly, and during their flight
shooting arrows backwards at their pursuers, killing men and
horses, as if they were combating face to face. In this sort
of warfare the adversary imagines he has gained a victory,
when in fact he has lost the battle; for the Tartars, observing
the mischief they have done him, wheel about, and renewing
the fight, overpower his remaining troops, and make them
prisoners in spite of their utmost exertions. Their horses are
so well broken-in to quick changes of movement, that upon the
signal given, they instantly turn in every direction; and by
these rapid manoeuvres many victories have been obtained.
All that has been here related is spoken of the original manners
of the Tartar chiefs; but at the present day they are much con-
rupted. 2 Those who dwell at Ukaka, forsaking their own
laws, have adopted the customs of the people who worship

1 " On long marches," says Bell, " all their provisions consist of cheese,
or rather dried curd, made up into little balls, which they drink when
pounded and mixed with water." (Vol. i. p. 34.) We were pre
sented," says Turner, " with a profusion of fresh, rich milk, and a pre
paration called, in the language of India, dhy, which is milk acidulated
by means of buttermilk boiled in it, and kept till it is slightly coagulated.
The kummuz of the Tartars is mares milk, prepared by the same process:
this is sometimes dried in masses till it resembles chalk; and is used to
give a relish to the water they drink, by solution with it. I have been
told that the operation of drying it is sometimes performed by tying the
dhy tight in bags of cloth, and suspending it under the horses bellies."

-Embassy to Tibet, p. 195.

2 By the corruption of manners he may be supposed to allude to
the effects produced by the conquest of China, which gave to these rude
and hardy people a taste for the enjoyment of ease and luxuries. So
enervated did the Mungals become, before the expiration of a century,
that they were ignominiously driven back to their deserts by an insur
rection of the Chinese population.

Administration of Justice 131

idols, and those who inhabit the eastern provinces have adopted
the manners of the Saracens. 1

CHAPTER L

OF THE RULES OF JUSTICE OBSERVED BY THESE PEOPLE AND
OF AN IMAGINARY KIND OF MARRIAGE CONTRACTED BE
TWEEN THE DECEASED CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT FAMILIES

JUSTICE is administered by them in the following manner.
When a person is convicted of a robbery not meriting the
punishment of death, he is condemned to receive a certain
number of strokes with a cane, seven, seventeen, twenty-seven,
thirty-seven, forty-seven, or as far as one hundred and seven,
according to the value of the article stolen and circumstances
of the theft; and many die under this chastisement. 2 When
for stealing a horse or other article that subjects the offender
to capital punishment, he is condemned to suffer death, the
sentence is executed by cutting his body in two with a sword. 3
But if the thief has the means of paying nine times the value
of the property stolen, he escapes all further punishment. It
is usual for every chief of a tribe or other person possessing
large cattle, such as horses, mares, camels, oxen, or cows, to
distinguish them by his mark, and then to suffer them to graze
at large, in any part of the plains or mountains, without em
ploying herdsmen to look after them; and if any of them should
happen to mix with the cattle of other proprietors, they are
restored to the person whose mark they bear. Sheep and goats,
on the contrary, have people to attend them. Their cattle
of every kind are well-sized, fat, and exceedingly handsome. 4

1 As the situation of Ukaha, or Ouchacha, is here placed in opposition
to that of the eastern provinces, we may presume it to be Okak, or Okaka,
of Abulfeda, on the banks of the Etel or Wolga, not far from Sarai, which
was visited by the father and uncle of our author, in their first journey.
The relative term eastern is not, however, intended to apply to those
provinces which we, in respect to China, call Eastern Tartary, but to
the country lying eastward of the Caspian.

2 To this punishment, which is known to be common in China, the
Portuguese have given the name of bastanado (from bastano, a staff or
cane).

3 In China, where the criminal law of the Tartars may be supposed to
have had much influence, the punishments of decapitation and of cutting
the bodies into many pieces, are in use for certain great offences.

4 " Their horned cattle," says Bell, " are very large. Their sheep
have broad tails, and their mutton is excellent. They have also great
abundance of goats." Vol. i. p. 246.

132 Travels of Marco Polo

When one man has had a son,, and another man a daughter,
although both may have been dead for some years, they have
a practice of contracting a marriage between their deceased
children, and of bestowing the girl upon the youth. They at
the same time paint upon pieces of paper human figures to
represent attendants with horses and other animals, dresses of
all kinds, money, and every article of furniture ; and all these,
together with the marriage contract, which is regularly drawn
up, they commit to the flames, in order that through the
medium of the smoke (as they believe) these things may be
conveyed to their children in the other world, and that they
may become husband and wife in due form. After this cere
mony, the fathers and mothers consider themselves as mutu
ally related, in the same manner as if a real connexion had
taken place between their living children. 1 Having thus
given an account of the manners and customs of the Tartars,
although not yet of the brilliant acts and enterprises of their
grand khan, who is lord of all the Tartars, we shall now return
to our former subject, that is, to the extensive plain which we
were traversing when we stopped to relate the history of this
people.

1 This custom, however extraordinary, is of the same character as
many of the grave absurdities to be found in the Chinese institutions.
We are told by P. Navarette that it exists in one of the northern pro
vinces, bordering on the country of the Mungals, and where of course
we may look for a similarity of practices. In the province of Shan-si,"
he says, " they have a ridiculous custom, which is, to marry dead folks.
F. Michael Trigaucius, a Jesuit, who lived several years in that province,
told it us whilst we were confined. It falls out that one man s son and
another s daughter die. Whilst the coffins are in the house (and they
use to keep them two or three years or longer) the parents agree to marry
them; they send the usual presents as if they were alive, with much
ceremony and music. After this they put together the two coffins, keep
the wedding dinner before them, and lastly they lay them together in
one tomb. The parents from this time are looked upon not only as
friends but relations, as they would have been had their children been
married living." (Churchill s Collect, vol. i. p. 69.) This," says
Malcolm, " is said to be still an usage in Tartary. They throw the con
tract in the fire, and conceive the smoke ascends to the departed children,
who marry in the other world. Petit de la Croix, in his life of Chenghiz,
mentions this fact ; and I find it stated in a Persian manuscript written
by a man of learning and information." Hist, of Persia, vol. i. p. 413,
note.

The Plain of Bargu 133

CHAPTER LI

OF THE PLAIN OF BARGU NEAR KARA-KORAN OF THE CUSTOMS
OF ITS INHABITANTS OF THE OCEAN, AT THE DISTANCE OF
FORTY DAYS JOURNEY FROM THENCE OF THE FALCONS
PRODUCED IN THE COUNTRY ON ITS BORDERS AND OF
THE BEARINGS OF THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATION TO AN
OBSERVER IN THOSE PARTS

UPON leaving Kara-koran and the mountains of Altai , the
burial-place, as has been said, of the imperial Tartar family,
you proceed, in a northern direction, through a country
termed the plain of Bargu, extending to the distance of about
forty days journey. 1 The people who dwell there are called
Mekriti, 2 a rude tribe, who live upon the flesh of animals, the
largest of which are of the nature of stags; and these they
also make use of for the purposes of travelling. 3 They feed

1 The name of Bargu appears in Strahlenberg s map of Tartary, near
the south-western part of the lake or sea of Baikal, and in D Anville s
on the north-east side, but by our author it is applied to the country
extending from thence, many days journey towards the Frozen Ocean,
and seems to correspond to what we term Siberia. This misapplication
(as he considers it) is noticed by Strahlenberg, who observes, that " the
name of Bargu is to be found in the old map of Great Tartary, though in
a very wrong place, viz. towards the Mare Glaciale." (Note 8, p. 14.)
It may have happened, however, that in the course of four centuries one
vague appellation may have superseded another; and I believe it will
not be contended that Siberia is the indigenous name of the region on
which it has been bestowed.

2 Of this tribe of Mekriti, which in the epitomes is Mecriit, but in the
Latin edition Meditae (Mecaci in the early Latin), frequent mention is
made in the Tartar histories, by the name of Merkit and Markat, whose
country was amongst the first of the conquests made by Jengiz-khan,
being in his immediate vicinity. Its situation is not pointed out with
any degree of precision, but that it is far northwards may be inferred
from a passage in L Histoire generate des Huns, where, speaking of the
defeat of the Naimans and dispersion of their princes, it is said: " Tous
prirent la fuite, et se retirerent vers la riviere d Irtisch, ou ils s etablirent,
et y formerent un puissant parti qui etoit soutenu par Toctabegh, khan
des Merkites." (Liv. xv. p. 23.) Ceux de la tribu des Markats,"
says Abu lghazi, avoient du temps de Zingis-Chan un chan appelle
Tochtabegi, qui estoit tousjours aux prises avec Zingis-Chan." (Hist,
geneal. p. 130.) This was probably the most northern tribe with whose
name our author was acquainted, and although he now proceeds to speak
(in very general terms) of those extensive regions which lie between the
rivers Oby and Lena, it may be presumed that he knew nothing of
them but from the report of others; nor does he attempt to make it
understood that he had visited them in person.

3 This is the well-known rein-deer, a large and beautiful species of
cervus, in size equal to the elk, and in shape not unlike our red deer.

i 34 Travels of Marco Polo

likewise upon the birds that frequent their numerous lakes
and marshes, as well as upon fish. It is at the moulting
season, or during summer, that the birds seek these waters,
and being then, from want of their feathers, incapable of
flight, they are taken by the natives without difficulty. This
plain borders on the ocean at its northern extremity. The
customs and manners of the people resemble those of the
Tartars that have been described, and they are subjects of the
grand khan. They have neither corn nor wine ; and although
in summer they derive subsistence from the chase, yet in
winter the cold is so excessive that neither birds nor beasts
can remain there. 1 Upon travelling forty days, as it is said,
you reach the (northern) ocean. 2 Near to this is a mountain,
in which, as well as in the neighbouring plain, vultures and
peregrine falcons have their nests. Neither men nor cattle
are found there, and of birds there is only a species called
bargelak, and the falcons to which they serve for food. The
former are about the size of a partridge, with tails like the
swallow, claws like those of the parrot kind, and are swift of
flight. When the grand khan is desirous of having a brood
of peregrine falcons, he sends to procure them at this place;
and in an island lying off the coast, gerfalcons are found in
such numbers that his majesty may be supplied with as many
of them as he pleases. 3 It must not be supposed that the
gerfalcons sent from Europe for the use of the Tartars are
conveyed to the court of the grand khan. They go only to
some of the Tartar or other chiefs of the Levant, bordering on
the countries of the Comanians and Armenians. This island is
situated so far to the north that the polar constellation appears
to be behind you, and to have in part a southerly bearing. 4

1 The description of these people and their country corresponds with
what we read of many of the savage tribes that wander over those in
hospitable deserts through which the great northern rivers flow.

8 This distance of forty days journey must be understood to com
mence from the plain or steppe of Bargu. He speaks of it in a qualified
manner, and not as of a tract that he had himself visited.

3 " In the province of Dauria," says Strahlenberg, " and near the
river Amour (the Saghalien oula of the Jesuits) there are a great many
milk-white falcons, which are sent in great numbers to China." (P.
361.) " I could not but admire," says Bell, " the beauty of these fine
birds. . . . They are brought from Siberia, or places to the north of the
river Amoor." (Travels, vol. ii. p. 79.) Among the presents sent by
the Czar Ivan Basiliewitz, by his ambassador, to Queen Mary, in 1556
(as mentioned by Hakluyt), was " a large and fair white jerfawcon, for
the wild swan, crane, goose, and other great fowls."

4 The Italian words, la stella tramontana," which in the text is
translated " the polar constellation," should perhaps be, in strictness,

The Kingdom of Erginul i 35

Having thus spoken of the regions in the vicinity of the
northern ocean, we shall now describe the provinces lying
nearer to the residence of the grand khan, and shall return to
that of Kampion, of which mention has already been made.

CHAPTER LI1

OF THE KINGDOM OF ERGINUL, ADJOINING TO THAT OF KAM
PION, AND OF THE CITY OF SINGUI OF A SPECIES OF OXEN
COVERED WITH EXTREMELY FINE HAIR OF THE FORM OF
THE ANIMAL THAT YIELDS THE MUSK, AND THE MODE OF
TAKING IT AND OF THE CUSTOMS OF THE INHABITANTS
OF THAT COUNTRY, AND THE BEAUTY OF THE WOMEN

UPON leaving Kampion, and proceeding five days journey
towards the east, in the course of which travellers are fre
quently terrified in the night-time by the voices of spirits,
they reach a kingdom named Erginul, 1 subject to the grand
khan, and included in the province of Tangut. Within the
limits of this kingdom are several principalities, the inhabi
tants of which are, in general, idolaters, with some few Nes-
torian Christians and worshippers of Mahomet. Amongst
many cities and strong places the principal one is Erginul.
Proceeding from thence in a south-eastern direction, the road
takes you to Cathay, and in that route you find a city called
Singui, 2 in a district of the same name, where are many towns

the " polar star." We must presume his meaning to have been that the
conspicuous stars in the tail of the lesser bear, or perhaps what are called
the pointers of the greater, appeared to the south of a person situated
at the extreme part of the northern continent. In Fra Mauro s map we
find the words: " Qui la Tramontana roman in mezzodi."

1 By the corrupted name of Erginul or Ergi-nur, is meant (as may be
conjectured from the circumstances) that district of Tangut which is
called by the Tartars Kokonor, and by the Chinese, Hohonor or Hohonol,
and is by some considered as Tangut Proper. The distance of its lake
from the city of Kampion or Kari-cheu is about one hundred and forty
miles, in a direction nearly south, which could scarcely be travelled in
five days, through a mountainous tract ; but the situation of its principal
town may have been much nearer to that place, and perhaps to the east
ward of its meridian, on the banks of the Olanmuren. In the Basle
edition the name is written Erigimul, in the older Latin, Ergimul, and in
the Italian epitomes, Ergiuul; but none of them, apparently, more cor
rect than the Ergi-nul of Ramusio; the latter part of which seems to be
the word ntir or nor, signifying a lake.

2 Singui (as the name appears in the texts of Ramusio, of the Basle
edition, and of the older Latin, but in the manuscripts, Signi an<J Sigui,

136

Travels of Marco Polo

and castles, in like manner belonging to Tangut, and undei
the dominion of the grand khan. 1 The population of this
country consists chiefly of idolaters; but there are also some
Mahometans and Christians. Here are found many wild
cattle that, in point of size, may be compared to elephants.
Their colour is a mixture of white and black, and they are
very beautiful to the sight. The hair upon every part of
their bodies lies down smooth, excepting upon the shoulder,
where it stands up to the height of about three palms. This
hair, or rather wool, is white, and more soft and delicate than
silk. 2 Marco Polo carried some of it to Venice, as a singular
curiosity, and such it was esteemed by all who saw it. Many
of these cattle taken wild have become domesticated, and the
breed produced between them and the common cow are noble
animals, and better qualified to undergo fatigue than any other
kind. They are accustomed to carry heavier burthens and to
perform twice the labour in husbandry that could be derived

and in the epitomes, Sirigai) lias been supposed by some to mean the
city of Si-gnan-fu, the capital of the province of Shen-si. But the latter
is situated near the eastern border of the province, and in the heart of
China; whereas it is Tangut that our author is still describing; and al
though the western extremity of Shen-si formerly belonged to the Sifan
or Tufan (people of Tangut), such was not the case with respect to the
interior part of the province. Singui or Signi, on the contrary, was, I
have no doubt, intended for the celebrated mart of Si-ning (the Selin of
Pallas), on the western verge of Shen-si, and distant only a few days*
journey, in a south-eastern direction, from Hohonor. It has been at
all periods, and is at this day, the great halting-place for travellers be
tween Tibet and Peking, and therefore properly said to lie in the road
to Cathay.

1 These numerous castles or forts are likewise noticed by Du Halde,
who describes the western part of Shen-si as consisting of two great
valleys, diverging from a point, and advancing, the one in a northern,
the other in a western direction, into the country of the Sifan. This
tract formed no original part of the empire, but was a conquered dis
trict, taken from Tangut (to which our author considers it as belonging
in his time) and annexed to Shen-si.

* This fine species of bos is particularly described by Turner, as well
hi his Embassy to Tibet, as in the Asiatic Researches, vol. iv., by the
name of the yak of Tartary, or bushy-tailed bull of Tibet. Over the
shoulders," he observes, " rises a thick muscle, covered with a profusion
of soft hair, which in general is longer and more copious than that along
the ridge of the back to the setting on of the tail. The tail is composed
of a prodigious quantity of long flowing, glossy hair. . . . The shoulders,
rump, and upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of soft, thick
wool; but the inferior parts with straight, pendent hair, that descends
below the knee. . . . There is a great variety of colours amongst them,
but black or white are the most prevalent." (Embassy, p. 186.) With
respect to its height, which our author has magnified, it is said by Turner
to be about that of the English bull; but, from the profuse quantity of
hair with which it is covered, it seems to be " of great bulk." It is dis
tinguished by the name of bos grunniens.

The Animal Producing Musk 137

from the ordinary sort, being both active and powerful. 1 In
this country it is that the finest and most valuable musk is
procured. 2 The animal which yields it is not larger than the
female goat, but in form resembles the antelope. It is called
in the Tartar language, gudderi. Its coat is like that of the
larger kind of deer : its feet and tail are those of the antelope,
but it has not the horns. It is provided with four projecting
teeth or tusks, three inches in length, two in the upper jaw
pointing downwards, and two in the lower jaw pointing up
wards; small in proportion to their length, and white as
ivory. Upon the whole it is a handsome creature. The musk
is obtained in the following manner. At the time when the
moon is at the full, a bag or imposthume of coagulated blood
forms itself about the umbilical region, and those whose
occupation it is to take the animal avail themselves of the
moonlight for that purpose, when they cut off the membrane,
and afterwards dry it, with its contents, in the sun. 3 It

1 " They (the yaks, Turner adds) are a very valuable property to the
tribes of itinerant Tartars called Dukba, who live in tents, and tend them
from place to place; they at the same time afford their herdsmen an
easy mode of conveyance, a good covering, and wholesome subsistence.
They are never employed in agriculture," (it is obvious that this may
not be the case in every district,) " but are extremely useful as beasts of
burden; for they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great weight."
(P. 187.) These qualities are strongly exemplified in Moorcroft s Journey
to Lake Manasarovera. Asiat. Res. vol. xii.

2 It is generally asserted that the musk of Tibet, or of the part of Tar-
tary bordering upon the north-west of China, is superior to that procured
in the Chinese provinces.

3 From Turner we have a particular, although unscientific, account of
what is usually termed the musk deer, which in the language of Tibet he
says, is called la, and the vascular covering of the musk, latcha. After
speaking of the long-haired cattle, he proceeds in the next place (as does
our author) to say: " The musk-deer top, which produce a valuable
article of revenue, are in great abundance in the vicinity of these moun
tains. This animal is observed to delight in the most intense cold, and
is always found in places bordering on snow. Two long curved tusks,
proceeding from the upper jaw, and directed downwards, seem intended
principally to serve him for the purpose of digging roots, which are said
to be his usual food; yet it is possible they may also be weapons of
offence. . . . They are about the height of a moderately-sized hog,
which they resemble much in the figure of the body; but they are still
more like the hog-deer, so termed in Bengal, from the same similitude.
They have a small head, a thick and round hind quarter, no scut, and
extremely delicate limbs. The greatest singularity in this animal, is
the sort of hair with which it is covered, which is prodigiously copious,
and grows erect all over the body, between two and three inches long,
lying smooth only where it is short, on the head, legs, and ears. . . . The
colour, at the base, is white, in the middle black, and brown at the points.
The musk is a secretion formed in a little bag or tumour, resembling a
wen, situated at the navel; and is found only in the male." (Embassy
to Tibet, p. 200.) In a work published at Calcutta in 1798, called the

Oriental Miscellany," (vol. i. p. 129,) there is a scientific description

i 3 8

Travels of Marco Polo

proves the finest musk that is known. Great numbers are
caught, and the flesh is esteemed good to eat. 1 Marco Polo
brought with him to Venice the head and the feet of one of
them dried. The inhabitants of this country employ them
selves in trade and manufactures. They have grain in abun
dance. The extent of the province is twenty-five 2 days
journey. Pheasants are found in it that are twice the size of
ours, but something smaller than the peacock. The tail
feathers are eight or ten palms in length. 3 There are other
pheasants also, in size and appearance like our own, as well as
a great variety of other birds, some of which have beautiful
plumage. The inhabitants are idolaters. 4 In person they are
inclined to corpulency, and their noses are small. Their hair
is black, and they have scarcely any beard, or only a few
scattered hairs on the chin. 5 The women of the superior
class are in like manner free from superfluous hairs; their
skins are fair, and they are well formed ; but in their manners
they are dissolute. The men are much devoted to female
society; and, according to their laws and customs, they may
have as many wives as they please, provided they are able to
maintain them. If a young woman, although poor, be hand
some, the rich are induced to take her to wife, and in order to
obtain her, make valuable presents to her parents and rela
tions, beauty alone being the quality held in estimation. We
shall now take our leave of this district, and proceed to speak
of another, situated further to the eastward.

of the " Thibet Musk," by Dr. Fleming, with a plate from an accurate
drawing of the animal, made by Mr. Home. See also an engraving oi
the head, in Kirkpatrick s Account of Nepaul.

1 The circumstance of the flesh serving for food is noticed by several
modern writers.

2 [The early Latin text reads fifteen.]

3 This is probably the argus-pheasant (phasianus argus), which, al
though a native of Sumatra, is said to be also found in the northern
part of China.

4 The religion of the lamas, which is idolatrous, prevails in the neigh
bourhood of Si-ning, as well as in all the countries bordering on the pro
vinces of Shen-si and Se-chuen, to the westward.

6 [The early Latin text reads, " non habent barbam nisi in mento."]

The Province of Egrigaia 139

CHAPTER LIII

OF THE PROVINCE OF EGRIGAIA, AND OF THE CITY OF KALACHA
OF THE MANNERS OF ITS INHABITANTS AND OF THE
CAMELOTS MANUFACTURED THERE

DEPARTING from Erginul, and proceeding easterly for eight
days, you come to a country named Egrigaia, still belonging
to the great province of Tangut, and subject to the grand
khan, in which there are many cities and castles, the prin
cipal one of which is called Kalacha. 1 The inhabitants are in
general idolaters; but there are three churches of Nestorian
Christians. In this city they manufacture beautiful camelots,
the finest known in the world, of the hair of camels and like
wise of white wool. 2 These are of a beautiful white. They
are purchased by the merchants in considerable quantities,
and carried to many other countries, especially to Cathay.
Leaving this province, we shall now speak of another situated
towards the (north-) east, named Tenduk, and shall thus enter
upon the territory of Prester John.

1 Neither the names of Egrigaya, Eggaya, Egygaia, or Egregia, not
those of Kalacha, Calacia, Colatia, or Calatia, appear in any map that
can be cited as authority. The former, however, has some resemblance
to Uguria, Iguria, or the country of the Eighurs; and the latter to the
name of the town called by Rubruquis, Cailac, and by B. Goez, Cialis;
the supposed situation of which will be found in the map prefixed to
Sherefeddin s History of Timur Bee, translated by P6tis de la Croix, at
some distance to the westward of Turfan, by the name of Yulduz or
Cialis. " We found one great citie there," says Rubruquis, " wherein
was a mart, and great store of merchants frequenting it. ... All this
country was wont to be called Organum; and the people thereof had
their proper language, and their peculiar kind of writing.". ..." The
first sort of these idolaters are called J ugures, whose land bordereth upon
the foresaid land of Organum, within the said mountains eastward. . . .
The citizens of the foresaid citie of Cailac had three idol- temples, and I
entered into two of them, to behold their foolish superstitions." Pur-
chas, vol. iii. p. 20.

* It has been doubted (since the material used in the manufacture of
shawls is known to be wool of a particular breed of sheep) whether the
hair of camels is actually woven into cloth of any kind; but we learn
from Elphinstone, that " oormuk, a fine cloth made of camels wool, a
quantity of cotton, and some lambs skins are imported (into Caubul)
from the Bokhara country." P. 295.

140 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER LIV

OF THE PROVINCE OF TENDUK, GOVERNED BY PRINCES OF THE
RACE OF PRESTER JOHN, AND CHIEFLY INHABITED BY
CHRISTIANS OF THE ORDINATION OF THEIR PRIESTS
AND OF A TRIBE OF PEOPLE CALLED ARGON, THE MOST
PERSONABLE AND THE BEST INFORMED OF ANY IN THESE
COUNTRIES

TENDUK, 1 belonging to the territory of Prester John/ is an
eastern province, in which there are many cities and castles,
subject to the rule of the grand khan; all the princes of that
family having remained dependent, since Chingis, the first
emperor, subdued the country. The capital is likewise named
Tenduk. The king now reigning is a descendant of Prester
John, and is still Prester John, and named George. He is
both a Christian and a priest; the greater part of the inhabi
tants being also Christians. This king George holds his
country as a fief of the grand khan; not, indeed, the entire
possessions of the original Prester John, but a certain portion
of them; and the khan always bestows upon him, as well as
upon the other princes of his house, his daughters, and other
females of the royal family, in marriage. In this province,
the stone of which the azure colour is made is found in abun
dance, and of fine quality. Here likewise they manufacture
stuffs of camels hair. The people gain their subsistence by
agriculture, trade, and mechanical labours. Although sub
ject to the dominion of the grand khan, the king being a

1 The plain of Tenduk has already been mentioned (p. 119, note 3 ) as
the scene of a famous battle, in which the army of Ung-khan was de
feated and destroyed by Jengiz-khan; and although the name is not to
be found in the Jesuits map, its situation is nearly identified by P.
Gaubil s informing us that the battle was fought in the space between
the rivers Tula and Kerlon, whose sources approximate about the forty-
eighth or forty-ninth degree of latitude. It was also in this tract, on the
northern border of the desert, that the Kaldan or chief of the Eluts was
defeated by the forces of the emperor Rang- hi, in the year 1696. I am
strongly inclined to believe that the name of Tenduk, which Petis de la
Croix has confounded with Tangut, is no other than Tungus; as we find
in the maps, the tribes of the Tungusi inhabiting this region, and parti
cularly between the Amur river and Baikal lake. Adelung, indeed,
remarks that in their language the names of the domesticated animals
are the same as in that of the Mungals, from whom they received them;
which is a proof of their ancient proximity and intercourse.

8 See Appendix I.

Gog and Magog 141

Christian, as has been said, the government of the country is
in the hands of Christians. Amongst the inhabitants, how
ever, there are both worshippers of idols and followers of the
law of Mahomet. 1 There is likewise a class of people known
by the appellation of Argon, 2 because they are produced from
a mixture of two races, namely, those natives of Tenduk who
are idolaters, and the Mahometans. The men of this country
are fairer complexioned and better looking than those in the
other countries of which we have been speaking, and also
better instructed, and more skilful traders.

CHAPTER LV

OF THE SEAT OF GOVERNMENT OF THE PRINCES OF THE FAMILY
OF PRESTER JOHN, CALLED GOG AND MAGOG OF THE
MANNERS OF ITS INHABITANTS OF THEIR MANUFACTURE
OF SILK AND OF THE MINES OF SILVER WORKED THERE

IN this province (of Tenduk) was the principal seat of govern
ment of the sovereigns styled Prester John, when they ruled
over the Tartars of this and the neighbouring countries, and
which their successors occupy to the present hour. George,
above-mentioned, is the fourth in descent from Prester John,
of whose family he is regarded as the head. There are two
regions in which they exercise dominion. These in our part
of the world are named Gog and Magog, but by the natives
Ung and Mongul; in each of which there is a distinct race of

1 Under the dynasty of the Seljuks of Persia, which commenced in the
eleventh century, the Mahometans established themselves in consider
able numbers at Kashgar, and from thence gradually spread over Tartary
in their character of merchants. During the reigns of the Moghul or
Mungal emperors of China, they appeared in a higher capacity, frequently
commanding armies and presiding at tribunals. Renaudot labours to
prove that their earliest connexion with that country was by sea; which
may have been the case with respect to the Arabs, although not to the
Mahometans of Persia and Khorasan.

2 This name of Argon appears to be the Orgon of the Jesuits and
Archon of Bell s map. The river so called runs through the part of Tar
tary here described, and being joined by the Tula, their united streams
fall into the Selinga. On the north-western bank of the Orgon we find,
in modern times, the urga, or station of the grand lama of the Mungals.
In nearly the same latitude, but more towards the east by several degrees,
appears also another and more considerable river, named in the Jesuits
map Ergone, or Argun, forming the boundary between the dominions of
China and Russia in that quarter; near to which is a town or city called
Argun-skoi

142 Travels of Marco Polo

people. In Ung they are Gog, and in Mongul they are Tar
tars. 1 Travelling seven days through this province, in an
easterly direction, towards Cathay, you pass many towns
inhabited by idolaters, as well as by Mahometans and Nes-
torian Christians. 2 They gain their living by trade and manu
factures, weaving, fine-gold tissues, ornamented with mother-
of-pearl, named nascici, and silks of different textures and
colours, not unlike those of Europe; together with a variety
of woollen cloths. These people are all subjects of the grand
khan. One of the towns, named Sindichin, is celebrated for
the manufacture of all kinds of arms, and every article neces
sary for the equipment of troops. In the mountainous part
of the province there is a place called Idifa, in which is a rich
mine of silver, from whence large quantities of that metal are
obtained. 3 There are also plenty of birds and beasts.

1 This passage, it must be confessed, is wholly unintelligible as it now
stands, and we are to presume that the words of our author have been
misunderstood and perverted, although it may be found impracticable
to restore them to a consistent sense. His object apparently was to
explain the distinction between the two races of which the subjects of
Ungkhan consisted, viz. Mungals and Turkis or Turks, to whom, in latter
times, the general name of Tartars or Tatars is exclusively applied: a
distinction which, notwithstanding the marked diversity of language, is
rendered obscure from the mixture of tribes under the same government ;
for, in consequence of the splendid reputation acquired by the immediate
dependants of Jengiz-khan, the various auxiliary tribes affected to con
sider themselves as Mungals ; whilst, on the other hand, it is evident that
the Chinese applied to them indiscriminately the appellation of Tata or
Tartars. It may be observed with respect to the scriptural names of
Gog and Magog, that they are here spoken of as being improperly given
to these people by Europeans, and not as appellations known in the
country. By the generality of Arabians and Persians, who pronounce
the names Yajuj and Majuj, they are understood to belong to the in
habitants of the mountainous region on the north-western side of the
Caspian Sea, or ancient Scythians, against whose predatory incursions
the strong rampart of Derbend, together with the line of works extending
from it, and regarded as supernatural, were constructed at a very remote
period. Other situations, however, have been assigned to this wandering
and terrific description of people, by the oriental writers of the middle
ages, some of whom place them in the northern part of Tartary.

2 During the successive reigns of the Mungal emperors of China, many
considerable towns were built in that part of Tartary which lies between
the river Kerlon and the Chinese province of Pe-che-li; but they were
afterwards destroyed, upon the expulsion of that dynasty by those of
the Ming, whose object it was to deface every vestige of the power of
their late masters.

3 The name of Sindicin or Sindichin, which in the Basle edition is
Sindacui, in the Italian epitomes Sindatoy, in the early Latin Sindatus,
and which should perhaps be Sindi or Sinda-cheu, (the last syllable
denoting the word " town,") is not to be traced in the Jesuits map, but
may have belonged to one of the places destroyed by the Ming, as men
tioned in the preceding note. Idifa, Idifu, or Idica, has equally eluded
my research, although the circumstance of a silver mine in its neighbour-

The City of Changanor 143

CHAPTER LVI

OF THE CITY OF CHANGANOR OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF
CRANES AND OF PARTRIDGES AND QUAILS BRED IN THAT
PART BY THE ORDERS OF THE GRAND KHAN

LEAVING the city and province last mentioned, and travelling
three days, you arrive at a city named Changa-nor, which
signifies,, the " white lake." 1 At this place the grand khan has
a great palace, which he is fond of visiting, because it is sur
rounded with pieces of water and streams, the resort of many
swans; and there is a fine plain, where are found in great
numbers cranes, pheasants, partridges, and other birds. He
derives the highest degree of amusement from sporting with
gerfalcons and hawks, the game being here in vast abun
dance. Of the cranes they reckon five species. 2 The first
sort are entirely black as coals, and have long wings. The

hood might have helped to point out its situation. Upon the whole, in
deed, and particularly from the description of the manufactures said to
flourish there, I am inclined to think that a transposition of matter (of
which some indubitable examples will be hereafter observed) has taken
place in this instance, and that the passage beginning with the words,
" Travelling seven days through this province," to the conclusion of the
chapter, has no proper connexion either with what precedes it, respecting
the country of the Mungals, or what follows respecting Changanor, but
must have applied to a more civilized country, nearer to the borders of
China.

1 The Cianganor or Changanor of Ramusio, Cianiganiorum of the
Basle edition, Cyagamorum of the older Latin, Cyangamor of the B.M.
and Berlin manuscripts, and Cyagnuorum of the Italian epitomes, are
obviously intended for the Tsahan-nor, Chahan-nor, or White lake of
>the maps; and it is probable that the Changai mountains of Strahlen-
berg, or Hangai-alin of the Jesuits, derive their appellation from the
same quality, real or imaginary, of whiteness. In the Kalmuk-Mun-
galian vocabulary of the former, the word for " white" is zagan, (pro
bably a soft pronunciation of chagan,} and in the Mancheu dictionary of
Langles it is changuien.

2 These birds being termed gru in the Italian versions, and grus in the
Latin, I have called them cranes in the English translation; but it may
be doubted whether the heron (ardea), or the stork (cicoma), be not rather
meant by our author s description of them. " On trouve," says the
translator, or the commentator of Abu lghazi, " une grande quantite
d oiseaux d une beaute particuliere dans les vastes plaines de la Grande
Tartarie, et 1 oiseau dont il est parle en cet endroit pourroit bien estre
une espece de heron, qu on trouve dans le pays des Moungales vers les
frontieres de la Chine, et qui est tout blanc, excepte le bee, les ailes, et
la queue, qu il a d un fort beau rouge. . . . Peut estre aussi que c est
d une cicogne dont nostre auteur veut parler." Hist, geneal. desTatares,
p. 205. This is the Cms Leucogeranus or Siberian crane of Pennant.

144 Travels of Marco Polo

second sort have wings still longer than the first, but are
white, and the feathers of the wings are full of eyes, round like
those of the peacock, but of a gold colour and very bright;
the head is red and black, and well formed ; the neck is black
and white, and the general appearance of the bird is extremely
handsome. The third sort are of the size of ours [in Italy].
The fourth are small cranes, having the feathers prettily
streaked with red and azure. The fifth are of a grey colour,
with the head red and black, and are of a large size. 1 Nigh
to this city is a valley frequented by great numbers of part
ridges and quails, for whose food the grand khan causes millet,
panicum, and other grains suitable to such birds, to be sown
along the sides of it every season, and gives strict command
that no person shall dare to reap the seed; in order that they
may not be in want of nourishment. Many keepers, likewise,
are stationed there for the preservation of the game, that it
may not be taken or destroyed, as well as for the purpose of
throwing the millet to the birds during the winter. So accus
tomed are they to be thus fed, that upon the grain being
scattered and the man s whistling, they immediately assemble
from every quarter. The grand khan also directs that a number
of small buildings be prepared for their shelter during the night;
and, in consequence of these attentions, he always finds abun
dant sport when he visits this country ; and even in the winter,
at which season, on account of the severity of the cold, he does
not reside there, he has camel-loads of the birds sent to him,
wherever his court may happen to be at the time. 2 Leaving
this place, we shall now direct our course three days journey
towards the north-east.

1 [The early Latin text has, " Quarta generatio sunt parvaB et habent
ad aures pennas nigras. Quinta generatio est quia sunt omnes grigias
et maxime, et habent caput nigrum et album."]

2 Game in large quantities is brought from Tartary to Peking during
the winter in a frozen state. Lettres edif. torn. xxii. p. 177. ed. 1781.

The Khan s Palace at Shandu 145

CHAPTER LVII

OF THE GRAND KHAN^S BEAUTIFUL PALACE IN THE CITY OF
SHANDU OF HIS STUD OF WHITE BROOD-MARES, WITH
WHOSE MILK HE PERFORMS AN ANNUAL SACRIFICE OF THE
WONDERFUL OPERATIONS OF THE ASTROLOGERS ON OCCA
SIONS OF BAD WEATHER OF THE CEREMONIES PRACTISED
BY THEM IN THE HALL OF THE ROYAL PALACE AND OF TWO
DESCRIPTIONS OF RELIGIOUS MENDICANTS, WITH THEIR
MODES OF LIVING

DEPARTING from the city last mentioned,, and proceeding
three days journey in a north-easterly direction, you arrive at
a city called Shandu, built by the grand khan Kublai, now
reigning. 1 In this he caused a palace to be erected, of marble
and other handsome stones, admirable as well for the elegance
of its design as for the skill displayed in its execution. The
halls and chambers are all gilt, and very handsome. It
presents one front towards the interior of the city, and the
other towards the wall ; and from each extremity of the build
ing runs another wall to such an extent as to enclose sixteen
miles in circuit of the adjoining plain, to which there is no
access but through the palace. 2 Within the bounds of this
royal park there are rich and beautiful meadows, watered by
many rivulets, where a variety of animals of the deer and goat
kind are pastured, to serve as food for the hawks and other
birds employed in the chase, whose mews are also in the grounds.
The number of these birds is upwards of two hundred; and the

1 Shandu is the Chang-tou (Shangtu) of the Jesuits map, and by P.
Couplet, in his Notes to the " Observations Chronologiques " of P. Gaubil,
is spoken of as " Ville detruite; elle etoit dans le pals de Kartchin en
Tartarie." Lat. 40 22 NN.E. of Peking. (P. 197.) In the year 1691
it was thus spoken of by P. Gerbillon: Nous fimes encore quarante
lys dans une plaine qui s appelle Cabaye, sur le bord d une petite riviere
nominee Chantou, le long de laquelle etoit autrefois batie la ville de Chan-
tou, ou les empereurs de la famille des Yuen tenoient leur cour durant
Tete. On en voit encore les restes." (Du Halde, torn. iv. p. 258.) If
the distance between Changa-nor and this place was only three days
journey, the former could not have been on the northern side of the
desert; but the numbers, from inattention in transcribing, are extremely
incorrect, and the decimals may, in this instance, have been omitted.

This forest," says Bell, speaking of the hunting-seat of the em
peror Kang-hi, " is really a most delightful place; it is well stored with
a great variety of game, and is of great extent, as will easily be conceived
from the account I have given of our two days hunting. It is all en
closed with a high wall of brick." Travels, vol. ii. p. 84.

146

Travels of Marco Polo

grand khan goes in person, at least once in the week, to inspect
them. Frequently, when he rides about this enclosed forest,
he has one or more small leopards carried on horseback, behind
their keepers ; l and when he pleases to give direction for their
being slipped, they instantly seize a stag, or goat, or fallow
deer, which he gives to his hawks, and in this manner he amuses
himself. In the centre of these grounds, where there is a
beautiful grove of trees, he has built a royal pavilion, supported
upon a colonnade of handsome pillars, gilt and varnished.
Round each pillar a dragon, likewise gilt, entwines its tail,
whilst its head sustains the projection of the roof, and its
talons or claws are extended to the right and left along the
entablature. 2 The roof is of bamboo cane, likewise gilt, and
so well varnished that no wet can injure it. The bamboos
used for this purpose are three palms in circumference and ten
fathoms in length, and being cut at the joints, are split into
two equal parts, so as to form gutters, and with these (laid
concave and convex) the pavilion is covered; but to secure
the roof against the effect of wind, each of the bamboos is tied
at the ends to the frame. 3 The building is supported on every
side (like a tent) by more than two hundred very strong silken
cords, and otherwise, from the lightness of the materials, it
would be liable to oversetting by the force of high winds. The
whole is constructed with so much ingenuity of contrivance
that all the parts may be taken asunder, removed, and again
set up, at his majesty s pleasure. This spot he has selected

1 This animal, if it be not the ounce, is the felis jubata or hunting
leopard, much smaller in size than the common species. In Hindustan
it is named the chita, and is employed by the native princes in the chase
of the antelope. See an account of " the Manner of Hunting amongst
the Princes of Hindostan," in the Asiatic Miscellany, vol. ii. p. 68, where
this animal is called the cheetar or panther.

8 It is well known that the dragon with five claws (instead of four, as
in the ordinary representations) is the imperial symbol, and forms a con
spicuous part of every article of dress, piece of furniture, or ornament
connected with the court of China.

8 The mode of covering here described is well known in the eastern
islands, and is mentioned in the following passage of the History of
Sumatra: " There is another kind of house, erected mostly for a tem
porary purpose, the roof of which is flat, and is covered in a very un
common, simple, and ingenious manner. Large straight bamboos are
cut of a length sufficient to He across the house, and being split exactly in
two, and the joints knocked out, a first layer of them is disposed in close
order, with the inner or hollow sides up ; after which a second layer, with
the outer or convex sides up, is placed upon the others in such manner
that each of the convex falls into the two contiguous concave pieces,
covering their edges; the latter serving as gutters to carry off the water
that falls upon the upper or convex layer." P. 58, third edition.

The Sacrifice of Mares Milk 147

for his recreation on account of the mild temperature and salu
brity of the air, and he accordingly makes it his residence
during three months of the year, namely, June, July, and
August; and every year, on the twenty-eighth day of the
moon, in the last of these months, it is his established custom
to depart from thence, and proceed to an appointed place, in
order to perform certain sacrifices, in the following manner.
It is to be understood that his majesty keeps up a stud of
about ten thousand horses and mares, which are white as
snow; l and of the milk of these mares no person can pre
sume to drink who is not of the family descended from Jengiz-
khan, with the exception only of one other family, named
Boriat, to whom that monarch gave the honourable privilege,
in reward of valorous achievements in battle, performed in his
own presence. 2 So great, indeed, is the respect shown to
these horses that, even when they are at pasture in the royal
meadows or forests, no one dares to place himself before them,
or otherwise to impede their movements. The astrologers
whom he entertains in his service, and who are deeply versed
in the diabolical art of magic, having pronounced it to be his
duty, annually, on the twenty-eighth day of the moon in
August, to scatter in the wind the milk taken from these mares,
as a libation to all the spirits and idols whom they adore, for
the purpose of propitiating them and ensuring their protection
of the people, male and female, of the cattle, the fowls, the
grain and other fruits of the earth; on this account it is that
his majesty adheres to the rule that has been mentioned, and
on that particular day proceeds to the spot where, with his
own hands, he is to make the offering of milk. On such occa
sions these astrologers, or magicians as they may be termed,
sometimes display their skill in a wonderful manner; for if
it should happen that the sky becomes cloudy and threatens
rain, they ascend the roof of the palace where the grand
khan resides at the time, and by the force of their in
cantations they prevent the rain from falling and stay the

1 Establishments ol brood mares and stallions, on as great a scale,
have been kept up by later emperors. The white colour does not now
appear to be thought so essential as it was by the Mungal-Tartar em
perors.

2 This family name is variously written Boriat, Horiach, Horiath,
Orati, and Orari. It was no doubt the eminent Tartar family of which
Malcolm speaks in his History of Persia, where he says: " The powerful
tribe of Byat came originally from Tartary with Chinghiz-khan. They
were long settled in Asia Minor, and a number of them fought in the army
of Bajazet against Timour." Vol. ii. p. 218, note.

i 4 8

Travels ot Marco Pole

tempest; so that whilst, in the surrounding country, storms
of rain, wind, and thunder are experienced, the palace itself
remains unaffected by the elements. 1 Those who operate
miracles of this nature are persons of Tebeth and Kesmir,
two classes of idolaters more profoundly skilled in the
art of magic than the natives of any other country.
They persuaded the vulgar that these works are effected
through the sanctity of their own lives and the merits of their
penances; and presuming upon the reputation thus acquired,
they exhibit themselves in a filthy and indecent state, regard
less as well of what they owe to their character as of the respect
due to those in whose presence they appear. They suffer their
faces to continue always uncleansed by washing and their
hair uncombed, living altogether in a squalid style. 2 They
are addicted, moreover, to this beastly and horrible practice,
that when any culprit is condemned to death, they carry off
the body, dress it on the fire, and devour it; but of persons
who die a natural death they do not eat the bodies. 3 Besides
the appellations before mentioned, by which they are dis
tinguished from each other, they are likewise termed bdksi,
which applies to their religious sect or order, as we should say,
friars, preachers, or minors. 4 So expert are they in their
infernal art, they may be said to perform whatever they will;
and one instance shall be given, although it may be thought

1 That magical arts were commonly resorted to by the princes of the
family of Jengiz-khan appears from other accounts.

1 These appear to have been Indian yogis or goseins, who are known
to travel by the way of Kashmir into Tibet, and from thence, frequently,
to the northern parts of Tartary. Their naked and squalid appearance
has been the subject of description at all periods, as well as their extra
ordinary penances or mortifications.

3 The agreement between the account here given of this barbarous
practice, and what is known of the Batta people of Sumatra, who devour
the bodies of condemned criminals, is so striking, that a doubt can
scarcely be entertained of a transposition having taken place in the order
of our author s notes, by which a remark upon the peculiar manners of
the latter, amongst whom he resided several months, has been detached
from its proper place, and introduced into this chapter, where savages
of a different description, and to whom cannibalism has not been im
puted by any traveller since his time, are the subject.

* We find in the Ayin Akbari of Abu lfazel, a confirmation of what is
here asserted to be the meaning of the term baksi, bakshi, or, according
to the Bengal pronunciation of Persian, bukshi, which is not furnished
by the dictionaries. Under the head of the " Doctrine of Boodh," he
says: " The learned among the Persians and Arabians call the priests of
this religion Bukshee, and in Tibbet they are stiled Lama." (Vol. iii.
p. 157.) Klaproth, in his " Abhandlung liber die Sprache und Schrift
der Uiguren," observes that the word Bakschi is of Mongol origin, and
is the usual appellation of the sages (gelehrten) of that country, who are
by the Chinese named Schu (Shu). P. 77, note.

Feats of the Magicians 149

to exceed the bounds of credibility. When the grand khan
sits at meals, in his hall of state (as shall be more particularly
described in the following book), the table which is placed in
the centre is elevated to the height of about eight cubits, and at
a distance from it stands a large buffet, where all the drinking
vessels are arranged. Now, by means of their supernatural
art, they cause the flagons of wine, milk, or any other beverage,
to fill the cups spontaneously, without being touched by the
attendants, and the cups to move through the air the distance
of ten spaces until they reach the hand of the grand khan. As
he empties them, they return to the place from whence they
came; and this is done in the presence of such persons as are
invited by his majesty to witness the performance. 1 These
baksis, when the festival days of their idols draw near, go to
the palace of the grand khan, and thus address him: " Sire,
be it known to your majesty, that if the honours of a holocaust
are not paid to our deities, they will in their anger afflict us
with bad seasons, with blight to our grain, pestilence to our
cattle, and with other plagues. On this account we supplicate
your majesty to grant us a certain number of sheep with black
heads, 2 together with so many pounds of incense and of
lignum aloes, in order that we may be enabled to perform the
customary rites with due solemnity." Their words, however,
are not spoken immediately to the grand khan, but to certain
great officers, by whom the communication is made to him.
Upon receiving it he never fails to comply with the whole of

1 What is here ascribed to sorcery appears to have been nothing more
than a pantomimical trick, and capable of being effected by no extra
ordinary artifice. The emperor, we may presume, and perhaps also
such of his confidential servants as had the honour of sitting near his
elevated table, might be aware of the machinery employed; but the
guests in general, and even the courtiers or mandarins of inferior rank,
amongst whom was probably our author s place, might be deceived;
their distance being such as to render imperceptible the wires by which
the vessels were made to move, as if spontaneously, from one part of
the hall of entertainment to the other. The peculiar fancy of these Tar
tar princes for having their liquor (an object always of the first import
ance) served in a manner calculated to raise surprise, is well exemplified
in the travels of Rubruquis, who describes a curious piece of machinery
constructed by a French artist, for conveying into the hall a variety of
liquors, which issued from the mouths of silver lions.

A peculiar species of sheep," says Turner, " seems indigenous to
this climate, marked almost invariably by black heads and legs. They
are of a small size, their wool is soft, and their flesh, almost the only
animal food eaten in Tibet, is, in my opinion, the finest mutton in the
world." (P. 302.) A similar breed is noticed by Hamilton on the
coast of Yemen. Their sheep," he says, " are all white, with jet black
heads, and small ears, their bodies large, and their flesh delicate.".
Vol. i. p. 15.

150 Travels of Marco Polo

their request; and accordingly, when the day arrives, they
sacrifice the sheep, and by pouring out the liquor in which
the meat has been seethed, in the presence of their idols, per
form the ceremony of worship. In this country there are
great monasteries and abbeys, so extensive indeed that they
might pass for small cities, some of them containing as many
as two thousand monks, who are devoted to the service of their
divinities, according to the established religious customs of the
people. 1 These are clad in a better style of dress than the
other inhabitants; they shave their heads and their beards, 2
and celebrate the festivals of their idols with the utmost pos
sible solemnity, having bands of vocal music and burning
tapers. Some of this class are allowed to take wives. 3 There
is likewise another religious order, the members of which are
named sensim, who observe strict abstinence and lead very
austere lives, having no other food than a kind of pollard,
which they steep in warm water until the farinaceous part is
separated from the bran, and in that state they eat it. This
sect pay adoration to fire, and are considered by the others as

1 The extensive monasteries in the province of Tangut have been
spoken of before. A particular description of them will be found in the
Alphabetum Tibetanum, and an enumeration in the Memoires concern,
les Chinois, torn. xiv. p. 219, under the head of " Miao ou temples qui
sont dans le pays des Si-fan," and commencing with that of Pou-ta-la,
near the city of La-sa. There were many likewise in more northern
parts of Tartary ; but these have been mostly destroyed in the wars that
took place upon the extinction of the Mongal dynasty of China, not only
between the new dynasty and the adherents of their predecessors, but
amongst the independent tribes themselves, under the denomination of
Eluths and Kalkas. With respect to the number of persons here said
to be contained in these monastic establishments, it is entirely consistent
with the accounts given by our modern travellers. Turner informs us
that there were two thousand five hundred gylongs (or monks) in one of
the monasteries which he visited.

2 All accounts we have of these people speak of the attention paid to
uniformity of dress amongst the persons devoted to the offices of religion
and the monastic life, according to their several classes and ranks; as
well as of the colours (yellow and red) affected by the two great sects
into which the lamas are divided. The tonsure also is mentioned by
different authorities. " The priests of this religion," says the Ayin
Akbari, " shave their heads, and wear dresses of leather [evidently a
mistake for the word yellow] and red cloth." (Vol. iii. p. 158.) Rubru-
quis also, describing the Tartars of Kara-korum, observes that, All
their priests had their heads and beards shaven quite over, and they are
clad in saffron-coloured garments." -Purchas, vol. iii. p. 21.

8 Although celibacy appears to be usually enjoined to the priests of
Buddha, Shakia-muni, or Fo, it is not universal. Ce mandarin," says
P. Magalhanes, " apres s en estre inform^ avec soin, me dit que dans la
seule ville et cour de Pe-kim il y avoit 10,668 bonzes non mariez, et que
nous appellons ho-xam (ho-shang), et 5,022 mariez." Nouv. Relat.
de la Chine, p. 57.

Religious Orders Among the Tartars i 5 i

schismatics, not worshipping idols as they do. 1 There is a
material difference between them in regard to the rules of
their orders, and these last described never marry in any
instance. They shave their heads and beards like the others,
and wear hempen garments of a black or dull colour; but even
if the material were silk, the colour would be the same. 2 They
sleep upon coarse mats, and suffer greater hardships in their
mode of living than any people in the world. 3 We shall now
quit this subject, and proceed to speak of the great and wonder
ful acts of the supreme lord and emperor, Kubla i-kaan.

1 The word sensim or sensin seems to be intended for the Two Chinese
monosyllables seng-sin, the former of which (according to De Guignes)
signifies bonzes or priests of Fo. In Morrison s dictionary, under the
word sang, we read: " Priests of the sect of Fuh, who are otherwise
called sha-mun : also denominated shang-jin. There are several other
names by which they are designated; ho-shang is that most commonly
given to them." From the account of their diet we are led to conclude
them Hindu devotees, and perhaps Sannyasis, who amongst a people
where the religion of Buddha prevailed would be regarded as schismatics.

2 The circumstance of the dark- coloured dresses (nere e biave) worn
by this class, seems to have been mentioned in order to distinguish them
from the ho-shang and lamas, who are always clad in yellow or red,
according to their sect, and adds to the probability that they were not
Buddists.

* The austerities to which, under the name of penances, the Indian
yogis, sannyasis, goseins, and other denominations of ascetics, expose
themselves, have been already adverted to. Their pilgrimages often
lead them to the borders of China and to the remote provinces of Tartary.

BOOK II

CHAPTER I

OF THE ADMIRABLE DEEDS OF KUBLAI-KAAN, THE EMPEROR
NOW REIGNING OF THE BATTLE HE FOUGHT WITH NAYAN,
HIS UNCLE, AND OF THE VICTORY HE OBTAINED

i. IN this Book it is our design to treat of all the great and
admirable achievements of the grand khan now reigning, who
is styled Kublai-kaan; the latter word implying in our lan
guage lord of lords/ and with much propriety added to his
name; for in respect to number of subjects, extent of terri
tory, and amount of revenue, he surpasses every sovereign
that has heretofore been or that now is in the world; nor
has any other been served with such implicit obedience by
those whom he governs. This will so evidently appear in the
course of our work, as to satisfy every one of the truth of our
assertion.

Kublai -kaan, it is to be understood, is the lineal and legiti
mate descendant of Jengiz-khan the first emperor, and the
rightful sovereign of the Tartars. He is the sixth grand khan, 2
and began his reign in the year I256. 3 He obtained the
sovereignty by his consummate valour, his virtues, and his
prudence, in opposition to the designs of his brothers, sup
ported by many of the great officers and members of his own
family. But the succession appertained to him of right. 4

1 Kaaii was the title which Jengiz directed his son and successor Oktai
to assume, and which is explained in dictionaries, as it is in our text, by
the terms khan of khans, or lord of lords.

8 He was properly the fifth, not the sixth emperor. Our author seems
to have included Batu in his enumeration, who was the eldest of the
grandsons of Jengiz, but waived his right to the sovereignty in favour
of Mangu his nephew.

3 As emperor of China the reign of Kublai is not understood to have
commenced till 1280, when the conquest of the southern provinces was
completed, and the ancient dynasty destroyed.

4 The right of succession, according to our ideas, would have been in
one of the sons of Mangu, of whom the eldest was named Asutai; but
amongst the Mungals this hereditary claim was modified by circum-

152

The Grand Khan Kublai i 5 3

It is forty-two years since he began to reign to the present
year, 1288, and he is fully eighty-five years of age. Previously
to his ascending the throne he had served as a volunteer in
the army, and endeavoured to take a share in every enter
prise. Not only was he brave and daring in action, but in
point of judgment and military skill he was considered to be
the most able and successful commander that ever led the
Tartars to battle. From that period, however, he ceased to
take the field in person, 1 and entrusted the conduct of expedi
tions to his sons and his captains; excepting in one instance,
the occasion of which was as follows. A certain chief named
Nayan, who, although only thirty years of age, was kinsman
to Kublai , 2 had succeeded to the dominion of many cities and
provinces, which enabled him to bring into the field an army
of four hundred thousand horse. His predecessors, however,
had been vassals of the grand khan. 3 Actuated by youthful
vanity upon finding himself at the head of so great a force, he
formed, in the year 1286, the design of throwing off his alle
giance, and usurping the sovereignty. With this view he

stances, and the dying sovereign generally nominated that person of the
family who was best qualified, from his age and talents, to hold the
reins of government, or rather to command the armies; an appointment
which was, however, to be subject to the approval or rejection of the
chiefs of tribes, in a grand assembly or diet, termed Kurultai. Accord
ingly we find that whilst the succession was for a time disputed between
Kublai and his younger brother, the sons of Mangu, instead of asserting
their own rights, took part with him who eventually proved to be the
weaker of their uncles.

1 That is, from the period of his becoming emperor of China, in 1280,
or, what is more to the point, subsequently to our author s arrival at
his court; for in 1262 he proceeded in person against his brother Artig-
buga.

2 In the Latin version the relationship of Nayan to Kublai is expressed
by the word patruus, in the Italian epitomes by avo, and in Ramusio s
text by barba, which the dictionaries inform us is the Lombard term for
zio, or uncle; but as he was the younger person by thirty or forty years
(according to what is here stated), it is nearly impossible that he could
have stood in that degree of consanguinity, and it is reasonable to sup
pose that the original phrase must have been misunderstood by the
translators. With more plausibility he might have been called his
nephew; but the actual relationship was much more distant, their
common ancestor being the father of Jengiz-khan. Kublai was the
grandson of that monarch, and Nayan the great-grandson of Belgatai
his brother. Consequently they were second cousins once removed,
according to the English mode of expression.

8 The dominions which this prince inherited from his ancestor, the
fourth brother of Jengiz-khan, lay in eastern Tartary; as those of Kaidu
comprehended generally the country westward from the great desert and
Altai mountains, towards Kashgar. These chiefs were bound, of course,
to do homage to the person who was considered as the head of the family]
and are therefore said to have been the vassals of Kublai.

i 54 Travels of Marco Polo

privately despatched messengers to Kaidu, another powerful
chief, whose territories lay towards the greater Turkey, 1 and
who, although a nephew of the grand khan, was in rebellion
against him, and bore him determined ill-will, proceeding
from the apprehension of punishment for former offences. To
Kaidu, therefore, the propositions made by Nayan were highly
satisfactory, and he accordingly promised to bring to his
assistance an army of a hundred thousand horse. Both
princes immediately began to assemble their forces, but it
could not be effected so secretly as not to come to the know
ledge of Kublai , who upon hearing of their preparations lost
no time in occupying all the passes leading to the countries of
Nayan and of Kaidu, in order to prevent them from having
any information respecting the measures he was himself
taking. He then gave orders for collecting, with the utmost
celerity, the whole of the troops stationed within ten days
march of the city of Kambalu. These amounted to three
hundred and sixty thousand horse, to which was added a
body of a hundred thousand foot, consisting of those who
were usually about his person, and principally his falconers
and domestic servants. 2 In the course of twenty days they
were all in readiness. Had he assembled the armies kept up
for the constant protection of the different provinces of Cathay,
it must necessarily have required thirty or forty days; in
which time the enemy would have gained information of his
arrangements, and been enabled to effect their junction, and to
occupy such strong positions as would best suit with their
designs. His object was, by promptitude, which is ever the
companion of victory, to anticipate the preparations of Nayan,
and by falling upon him whilst single, destroy his power with
more certainty and effect than after he should have been
joined by Kaidu.

It may be proper here to observe, whilst on the subject of the
armies of the grand khan, that in every province of Cathay and
of Manji, 3 as well as in other parts of his dominions, there were

1 Turkistan, or the country possessed by the Turki tribes, to whom
the name of Tartars or Tatars has of late been exclusively applied.

a The employment of troops of this description (corresponding to the
bostangis, or gardeners of the Turkish seraglio), marks the already per
ceptible decline of that vigorous system which enabled the Tartars to
subdue their civilized and luxurious neighbours, but which inevitably
became relaxed from inactivity and indulgence in the manners of the
conquered.

3 By these we are to understand Northern and Southern China, sepa
rated by the great river Hoang-ho on the eastern, and by the southern
limits of Shen-si on the western side.

Insurrection of Nayan 155

many disloyal and seditious persons, who at all times were dis
posed to break out in rebellion against their sovereign/ and
on this account it became necessary to keep armies in such of
the provinces as contained large cities and an extensive popu
lation, which are stationed at the distance of four or five miles
from those cities, and can enter them at their pleasure. These
armies the grand khan makes it a practice to change every
second year, and the same with respect to the officers who
command them. By means of such precautions the people are
kept in quiet subjection, and no movement nor innovation of
any kind can be attempted. The troops are maintained not
only from the pay they receive out of the imperial revenues
of the province, but also from the cattle and their milk, which
belong to them individually, and which they send into the cities
for sale, furnishing themselves from thence, in return, with
those articles of which they stand in need. 2 In this manner
they are distributed over the country, in various places, to the
distance of thirty, forty, and even sixty days journey. If
even the half of these corps were to be collected in one place,
the statement of their number would appear marvellous and
scarcely entitled to belief.

2. Having formed his army in the manner above described,
the grand khan proceeded towards the territory of Nayan, and
by forced marches, continued day and night, he reached it at
the expiration of twenty-five days. So prudently, at the same
time, was the expedition managed, that neither that prince
himself nor any of his dependents were aware of it, all the
roads being guarded in such a manner that no persons who
attempted to pass could escape being made prisoners. Upon
arriving at a certain range of hills, on the other side of which
was the plain where Nayan s army lay encamped, Kublai
halted his troops, and allowed them two days of rest. During
this interval he called upon his astrologers to ascertain by
virtue of their art, and to declare in presence of the whole army,

1 Not only a great part of the population, especially of Southern China,
must have been loyally attached to the ancient race of their kings, but
also there were in all the western provinces numerous partisans of the
rival branches of Kublai s own family, who were eager to seize all oppor
tunities of fomenting disturbance.

8 These details, so probable in themselves, are not, I believe, to be
found in any other original writer. It must have been the policy of
Kublai to keep his Tartarian troops as distinct as possible from the
Chinese, and therefore, instead of quartering them in the great towns,
they were encamped at the distance of some miles from them, and the
semblance at least of their former pastoral life was preserved, whilst
they were surrounded with their herds and flocks.

Travels of Marco Polo

to which side the victory would incline. They pronounced
that it would fall to the lot of Kublai. It has ever been the
practice of the grand khans to have recourse to divination for
the purpose of inspiriting their men. Confident therefore of
success, they ascended the hill with alacrity the next morning,
and presented themselves before the army of Nayan, which
they found negligently posted, without advanced parties or
scouts, whilst the chief himself was asleep in his tent, accom
panied by one of his wives. Upon awaking, he hastened to
form his troops in the best manner that circumstances would
allow, lamenting that his junction with Kaidu had not been
sooner effected. Kublai took his station in a large wooden
castle, borne on the backs of four elephants, 1 whose bodies were
protected with coverings of thick leather hardened by fire, over
which were housings of cloth of gold. The castle contained
many cross-bow-men and archers, and on the top of it was
hoisted the imperial standard, adorned with representations
of the sun and moon. His army, which consisted of thirty
battalions of horse, each battalion containing ten thousand
men, armed with bows, he disposed in three grand divisions;
and those which formed the left and right wings he extended
in such a manner as to out-flank the army of Nayan. In
front of each battalion of horse were placed five hundred
infantry, armed with short lances and swords, who, whenever
the cavalry made a show of flight, were practised to mount
behind the riders and accompany them, alighting again when
they returned to the charge, and killing with their lances the
horses of the enemy. As soon as the order of battle was
arranged, an infinite number of wind instruments of various
kinds were sounded, and these were succeeded by songs,
according to the custom of the Tartars before they engage in
fight, which commences upon the signal given by the cymbals
and drums, and there was such a beating of the cymbals and
drums, and such singing, that it was wonderful to hear. This
signal, by the orders of the grand khan, was first given to the

1 Elephants have never been commonly used in China, either for war
or parade; but during the operations carried on by Kublai (whilst acting
as hi? brother s lieutenant) in the province of Yunnan, bordering on Ava
and other countries where these noble animals abound, he must have
become well acquainted with the uses to which they might be rendered
subservient; and it appears in a subsequent chapter, that only three
years before the period of which we are speaking, he had taken a number
of elephants from the king of Mien or Ava (whom his generals defeated
in 1283), and employed them in his armies. This consistency of cir
cumstances is not unworthy of observation.

The Great Battle with Nay an 157

right and left wings; and then a fierce and bloody conflict
began. The air was instantly filled with a cloud of arrows that
poured down on every side, and vast numbers of men and
horses were seen to fall to the ground. The loud cries and
shouts of the men, together with the noise of the horses and the
weapons, were such as to inspire terror into those who heard
them. When their arrows had been discharged, the hostile
parties engaged in close combat with their lances, swords, and
maces shod with iron; and such was the slaughter, and so
large were the heaps of the carcases of men, and more especially
of horses, on the field, that it became impossible for the one
party to advance upon the other. Thus the fortune of the day
remained for a long time undecided, and victory wavered
between the contending parties from morning until noon; for
so zealous was the devotion of Nayan s people to the cause of
their master, who was most liberal and indulgent towards
them, that they were all ready to meet death rather than turn
their backs to the enemy. At length, however, Nayan, per
ceiving that he was nearly surrounded, attempted to save him
self by flight, but was presently made prisoner, and conducted
to the presence of Kublai, who gave orders for his being put to
death. 1 This was carried into execution by enclosing him
between two carpets, which were violently shaken until the
spirit had departed from the body ; the motive for this peculiar
sentence being, that the sun and the air should not witness the
shedding of the blood of one who belonged to the imperial
family. 2 Those of his troops which survived the battle came
to make their submission, and swear allegiance to Kublai.
They were inhabitants of the four noble provinces of Chorza,
Karli, Barskol, and Sitingui. 3

Nayan, who had privately undergone the ceremony of
baptism, but never made open profession of Christianity,
thought proper, on this occasion, to bear the sign of the cross

1 The particulars of the combat, as given in the text, do not well agree
with the account furnished by De Guignes; but this is not surprising
when we consider how rarely two descriptions of any great battle are
found to correspond. It may be remarked that Marco Polo seems to
have been present.

2 This affectation of avoiding to shed blood in the act of depriving of life
a person of high rank, is observable in many instances, and may perhaps
have given occasion to the use of the bow-string in the Turkish seraglio.

3 It is not possible to identify in any modern map or account of Northern
Tartary the names of these tribes, which may have long ceased to exist
under the same denominations. The difficulty is further increased by
the extraordinary corruption of the words in different versions and
editions.

i 5 8

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in his banners, and he had in his army a vast number of Chris
tians, who were left amongst the slain. When the Jews x and
the Saracens perceived that the banner of the cross was over
thrown, they taunted the Christian inhabitants with it, saying,
Behold the state to which your (vaunted) banners, and those
who followed them, are reduced ! On account of these
derisions the Christians were compelled to lay their complaints
before the grand khan, who ordered the former to appear
before him, and sharply rebuked them. " If the Cross of
Christ," he said, " has not proved advantageous to the party
of Nayan, the effect has been consistent with reason and
justice, inasmuch as he was a rebel and a traitor to his lord,
and to such wretches it could not afford its protection. Let
none therefore presume to charge with injustice the God of
the Christians, who is Himself the perfection of goodness and
of justice."

CHAPTER II

OF THE RETURN OF THE GRAND KHAN TO THE CITY OF KANBALU
AFTER HIS VICTORY OF THE HONOUR HE CONFERS ON THE
CHRISTIANS, THE JEWS, THE MAHOMETANS, AND THE
IDOLATERS, AT THEIR RESPECTIVE FESTIVALS AND THE
REASON HE ASSIGNS FOR HIS NOT BECOMING A CHRISTIAN

THE grand khan, having obtained this signal victory, returned
with great pomp and triumph to the capital city of Kanbalu.
This took place in the month of November, and he continued
to reside there during the months of February and March, in
which latter was our festival of Easter. Being aware that this
was one of our principal solemnities, he commanded all the
Christians to attend him, and to bring with them their Book,
which contains the four Gospels of the Evangelists. After
causing it to be repeatedly perfumed with incense, in a cere
monious manner, he devoutly kissed it, and directed that the
same should be done by all his nobles who were present. This
was his usual practice upon each of the principal Christian

1 This is the first occasion on which our author speaks of Jews in
Tartary or China. Of their existence in the latter country, at an early
period, there is no room to doubt. In the relations of the Mahometan
travellers of the ninth century, we are told that in the massacre which
took place at the city of Canfu, when taken by a rebel leader after an
obstinate siege, many of that race perished.

The Christians in Tartary 159

festivals, such as Easter and Christmas; and he observed the
same at the festivals of the Saracens, Jews, and idolaters. 1
Upon beinglisked his motive for this conduct, he said : u There
are four great Prophets who are reverenced and worshipped
by the different classes of mankind. The Christians regard
Jesus Christ as their divinity; the Saracens, Mahomet; the
Jews, Moses; 2 and the idolaters, Sogomombar-kan, 3 the most
eminent amongst their idols. I do honour and show respect to
all the four, and invoke to my aid whichever amongst them is
in truth supreme in heaven." But from the manner in which
his majesty acted towards them, it is evident that he regarded
the faith of the Christians as the truest and the best; nothing,
as he observed, being enjoined to its professors that was not
replete with virtue and holiness. By no means, however,
would he permit them to bear the cross before them in their
processions, because upon it so exalted a personage as Christ
had been scourged and (ignominiously) put to death. It may
perhaps be asked by some, why, if he showed such a preference
to the faith of Christ, he did not conform to it, and become a
Christian ? His reason for not so doing, he assigned to Nicolo
and Maffio Polo, when, upon the occasion of his sending them
as his ambassadors to the Pope, they ventured to address a
few words to him on the subject of Christianity. " Where
fore," he said, " should I become a Christian? You your
selves must perceive that the Christians of these countries are
ignorant, inefficient persons, who do not possess the faculty of
performing anything (miraculous); whereas you see that the
idolaters can do whatever they will. When I sit at table the
cups that were in the middle of the hall come to me filled with
wine and other beverage, spontaneously and without being
touched by human hand, and I drink from them. They have

1 This conduct towards the professors of the several systems of faith
is perfectly consistent with the character of Kublai, in which policy was
the leading feature. It was his object to keep in good humour all classes
of his subjects, and especially those of the capital or about the court, by
indulging them in the liberty of following unmolested their own religious
tenets, and by flattering each with the idea of possessing his special
protection. Many of the highest offices, both civil and military, were
held by Mahometans.

8 Neither do those who profess the Mussulman faith regard Mahomet
as a divinity, nor do the Jews so regard Moses; but it is not to be ex
pected that a Tartar emperor should make very accurate theological
distinctions.

3 This word, probably much corrupted by transcribers, must be in
tended for one of the numerous titles of Buddha or Fo, who, amongst
the Mungals, as in India also, is commonly termed Shakia-muni, and in
Siam, Sommona-kodom.

160 Travels of Marco Polo

the power of controlling bad weather and obliging it to retire to
any quarter of the heavens, with many other wonderful gifts of
that nature. You are witnesses that their idols have the
faculty of speech, and predict to them whatever is required.
Should I become a convert to the faith of Christ, and profess
myself a Christian, the nobles of my court and other persons
who do not incline to that religion will ask me what sufficient
motives have caused me to receive baptism, and to embrace
Christianity. < What extraordinary powers/ they will say,
< what miracles have been displayed by its ministers ? Where
as the idolaters declare that what they exhibit is performed
through their own sanctity, and the influence of their idols/
To this I shall not know what answer to make, and I shall be
considered by them as labouring under a grievous error;
whilst the idolaters, who by means of their profound art can
effect such wonders, may without difficulty compass my death.
But return you to your pontiff, and request of him, in my
name, to send hither a hundred persons well skilled in your
law, who being confronted with the idolaters shall have power
to coerce them, and showing that they themselves are endowed
with similar art, but which they refrain from exercising,
because it is derived from the agency of evil spirits, shall com
pel them to desist from practices of such a nature in their
presence. When I am witness of this, I shall place them and
their religion under an interdict, and shall allow myself to be
baptized. Following my example, all my nobility will then in
like manner receive baptism, and this will be imitated by my
subjects in general; so that the Christians of these parts will
exceed in number those who inhabit your own country/
From this discourse it must be evident that if the Pope had
sent out persons duly qualified to preach the gospel, the grand
khan would have embraced Christianity, for which, it is cer
tainly known, he had a strong predilection. But, to return
to our subject, we shall now speak of the rewards and honours
he bestows on such as distinguish themselves by their valour
in battle.

Military Rewards 161

CHAPTER III

OF THE KIND OF REWARDS GRANTED TO THOSE WHO CONDUCT
THEMSELVES WELL IN FIGHT, AND OF THE GOLDEN TABLETS
WHICH THEY RECEIVE

THE grand khan appoints twelve of the most intelligent
amongst his nobles, whose duty it is to make themselves
acquainted with the conduct of the officers and men of his
army, particularly upon expeditions and in battles, and to
present their reports to him, 1 and he, upon being apprised of
their respective merits, advances them in his service, raising
those who commanded an hundred men to the command of a
thousand, and presenting many with vessels of silver, as well
as the customary tablets or warrants of command and of
government. 2 The tablets given to those commanding a
hundred men are of silver; to those commanding a thousand,
of gold or of silver gilt; and those who command ten thousand
receive tablets of gold, bearing the head of a lion; 3 the former
being of the weight of a hundred and twenty saggi* and these
with the lion s head, two hundred and twenty. At the top of
the inscription on the tablet is a sentence to this effect: " By
the power and might of the great God, and through the grace

1 In the establishment of a board of this nature it is probable that
Kubla i only conformed to the system of the former or ancient Chinese
government, which placed the various concerns of the state under the
management of distinct tribunals named pu, to each of which another
word, expressive of the particular nature of the department, is prefixed.
" La quatrieme cour souveraine," says Du Halde, " se nomme ping-poit,
c est-a-dire, le tribunal des armes. La milice de tout rempire est de son
ressort. C est de ce tribunal que dependent les omciers de guerre g6ne-
raux et particuliers," etc. (Tom. ii. p. 24.) Under a warlike monarch,
who owed the empire of China to his sword, it might well have been con
sidered as the first in consequence, although now inferior in rank to three
others.

2 See note J , p. 16, where some account is given of these tablets or letters
patent, called tchi-kouei, according to the French orthography.

3 The Chinese representation of a lion, like the singa of the Hindu
mythology, from whence it seems to have been borrowed, is a grotesque
figure, extremely unlike the real animal. An engraving of it will be
found in Staunton s Account of Lord Macartney s Embassy, (vol. ii. p.
311;) and the figure is not uncommon in our porcelain collections. Oc
casion will be taken hereafter to show that where the lion is spoken of
by our author as a living animal, and an object of hunting sport, the
tiger must be understood.

4 The saggio of Venice being equal to the sixth part of an ounce, these
consequently weighed twenty ounces, and the others in proportion up
to fifty ounces.

162 Travels of Marco Polo

which he vouchsafes to our empire, be the name of the kaan
blessed; and let all such as disobey (what is herein directed)
suffer death and be utterly destroyed." The officers who hold
these tablets have privileges attached to them, and in the in
scription is specified what are the duties and the powers of
their respective commands. He who is at the head of a hun
dred thousand men, or the commander in chief of a grand army,
has a golden tablet weighing three hundred saggi, with the
sentence above mentioned, and at the bottom is engraved the
figure of a lion, together with representations of the sun and
moon. He exercises also the privileges of his high command,
as set forth in this magnificent tablet. Whenever he rides in
public, an umbrella is carried over his head, denoting the rank
and authority he holds ; * and when he is seated, it is always
upon a silver chair. The grand khan confers likewise upon
certain of his nobles tablets on which are represented figures of
the gerfalcon, 2 in virtue of which they are authorized to take
with them as their guard of honour the whole army of any
great prince. They can also make use of the horses of the im
perial stud at their pleasure, and can appropriate the horses
of any officers inferior to themselves in rank.

CHAPTER IV

OF THE FIGURE AND STATURE OF THE GRAND KHAN OF HIS
FOUR PRINCIPAL WIVES AND OF THE ANNUAL SELECTION
OF YOUNG WOMEN FOR HIM IN THE PROVINCE OF UNGUT

KUBLAI, who is styled grand khan, or lord of lords, is of the
middle stature, that is, neither tall nor short; his limbs are
well formed, and in his whole figure there is a just proportion.
His complexion is fair, and occasionally suffused with red,
like the bright tint of the rose, which adds much grace to his
countenance. His eyes are black and handsome, his nose is
well shaped and prominent. He has four wives of the first

1 In many parts of the East, the parasol or umbrella with a long
handle, borne by an attendant, is a mark of high distinction, and even
denotes sovereignty when of a particular colour. Du Halde, in describ
ing the parade of a tsong-tu or viceroy of a province, enumerates amongst
the insignia " un parasol de soye jaune a triple etage."

- Amongst the emblematical ornaments worn by great officers, the
eagle is mentioned by Du Halde, but it may probably have been intended
tor the gerfalcon, a bird more prized as the instrument of royal sport.

The Harem of the Grand Khan 163

rank, who are esteemed legitimate/ and the eldest born son of
any one of these succeeds to the empire, upon the decease of
the grand khan. 2 They bear equally the title of empress, and
have their separate courts. None of them have fewer than
three hundred young female attendants of great beauty, to
gether with a multitude of youths as pages, and other eunuchs,
as well as ladies of the bedchamber; so that the number of
persons belonging to each of their respective courts amounts
to ten thousand. 3 When his majesty is desirous of the com
pany of one of his empresses, he either sends for her, or goes
himself to her palace. Besides these, he has many concu
bines provided for his use, from a province of Tartary named
Ungut, having a city of the same name, the inhabitants of
which are distinguished for beauty of features and fairness of
complexion. 4 Thither the grand khan sends his officers every
second year, or oftener, as it may happen to be his pleasure,

1 " II avoit epouse plusieurs femmes," says De Guignes, " dont cinq
portoient le titre d imperatrices; " but it is probable that not more than
four of these (if so many) were contemporaneous ; and the legitimacy of
the latter number, which does not appear to be sanctioned by the ancient
Chinese institutions, may have been suggested by the Mahometan usage.
Three queens are mentioned by P. Magalhanes as belonging to the
emperor Kang-hi, and the establishment of the late emperor Kien Long
consisted, in like manner, of one female with the rank of empress, two
queens of the second order, and six of the third.

2 According to the laws of China, as we are told by Du Halde, the
eldest son (or son of the superior wife), though he may have a preferable
claim, has not an indefeasible right to the succession. Amongst the
predecessors of Kublai, also, in the Moghul empire, we have instances of
the hereditary claim being set aside, and Oktaii himself was named grand
khan by his father, in preference to Jagatai , the eldest son. Our author
must therefore be understood to say, that the son first born to any one
of the four empresses was considered as the presumptive heir; and this
in fact having been the case with respect to the eldest son of Kublai,
whose succession, had he outlived his father, was undoubted, the pre
vailing sentiment of the court might naturally be mistaken for the estab
lished custom of the empire.

This number appears excessive, but we are not to measure the extra
vagancies of enormous and uncontrolled power by any standard of our own
ideas. Perhaps besides the establishment of female attendants and of
eunuchs, old and young, a numerous military guard of honour might be
attached to the court of each of the empresses. The early Venice edition,
however, states the number much lower: " Ciascuna de queste quatro
regine hanno in sua corte piu de quatro millia persone infra homini e
donne." P. Martini speaks of numerous females, below the rank of con
cubines, for the service of the palace.

1 The country here named Ungut is in other versions called Origiach,
Origiathe, and Ungrac. There is little doubt of its being intended for
that of the Ighurs, Eighurs, or Uighurs, who in the time of Jengiz-khan
possessed the countries of Tnrfan. and Hami or Kamil, and were always
considered as superior, in respect both of person and acquirements, tc
the other nations of Tartary.

164

Travels of Marco Polo

who collect for him, to the number of four or five hundred, 01
more, of the handsomest of the young women, according to the
estimation of beauty communicated to them in their instruc
tions. The mode of their appreciation is as follows. Upon
the arrival of these commissioners, they give orders for assem
bling all the young women of the province, and appoint quali
fied persons to examine them, who, upon careful inspection of
each of them separately, that is to say, of the hair, the coun
tenance, the eyebrows, the mouth, the lips, and other features,
as well as the symmetry of these with each other, estimate
their value at sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, or twenty, or more
carats, according to the greater or less degree of beauty. 1 The
number required by the grand khan, at the rates, perhaps, of
twenty or twenty-one carats, to which their commission was
limited, is then selected from the rest, and they are con
veyed to his court. Upon their arrival in his presence, he
causes a new examination to be made by a different set of
inspectors, and from amongst them a further selection takes
place, when thirty or forty are retained for his own chamber
at a higher valuation. These, in the first instance, are com
mitted separately to the care of the wives of certain of the
nobles, whose duty it is to observe them attentively during the
course of the night, in order to ascertain that they have not
arty concealed imperfections, that they sleep tranquilly, do not
snore, have sweet breath, and are free from unpleasant scent
in any part of the body. Having undergone this rigorous
scrutiny, they are divided into parties of five, one of which
parties attends during three days and three nights, in his
majesty s interior apartment, where they are to perform every
service that is required of them, and he does with them as
he likes. When this term is completed, they are relieved by
another party, and in this manner successively, until the whole
number have taken their turn; when the first five recom
mence their attendance. But whilst the one party officiates
in the inner chamber, another is stationed in the outer apart
ment adjoining; in order that if his majesty should have occa-

1 If by this gold weight is meant the carat consisting of four grains,
the estimated value of beauty must have been very low in that age and
country, as twenty carats or eighty grains of gold, at four pounds sterling
the ounce, amount to no more than thirteen shillings and fourpence.
But the probability is that our author s words expressed some Chinese
weight (the tdel, perhaps, or the mace, which latter would bring it to
about eight or nine pounds sterling), and the foreign term he employed
may have been inaccurately rendered by carato.

Kublai s Children 165

sion for anything, such as drink or victuals, the former may
signify his commands to the latter, by whom the article re
quired is immediately procured : and thus the duty of waiting
upon his majesty s person is exclusively performed by these
young females. 1 The remainder of them, whose value had
been estimated at an inferior rate, are assigned to the different
lords of the household; under whom they are instructed in
cookery, in dressmaking, and other suitable works; and upon
any person belonging to the court expressing an inclination to
take a wife, the grand khan bestows upon him one of these
damsels, with a handsome portion. In this manner he provides
for them all amongst his nobility. It may be asked whether
the people of the province do not feel themselves aggrieved in
having their daughters thus forcibly taken from them by the
sovereign? Certainly not; but, on the contrary, they regard
it as a favour and an honour done to them ; and those who are
the fathers of handsome children feel highly gratified by his
condescending to make choice of their daughters. " If," say
they, " my daughter is born under an auspicious planet and to
good fortune, his majesty can best fulfil her destinies, by
matching her nobly; which it would not be in my power to
do." If, on the other hand, the daughter misconducts herself,
or any mischance befalls her (by which she becomes disquali
fied), the father attributes the disappointment to the malign
influence of her stars.

CHAPTER V

OF THE NUMBER OF THE GRAND KHAN S SONS BY HIS FOUR
WIVES, WHOM HE MAKES KINGS OF DIFFERENT PROVINCES
-AND OF CHINGIS HIS FIRST-BORN ALSO OF THE SONS BY
HIS CONCUBINES, WHOM HE CREATES LORDS

THE grand khan has had twenty-two sons by his four legiti
mate wives, the eldest of whom, named Chingis, 2 was designed

1 It would appear from hence that Kublai , although he adopted the
Chinese custom of employing eunuchs as the attendants or guards of his
females, did not so far forget his original manly habits as to admit them
near his own person.

2 Gaubil and De Guignes name this prince Tchingkin and Tchenkin,
and such may perhaps have been the manner in which it was pronounced
by the Chinese, who terminate all their monosyllables either with a vowel
or a nasal; but the name as found in most of the versions of our author
is apparently more correct, being that of the great ancestor of the family

i 66 Travels of Marco Polo

to inherit the dignity of grand khan, with the government of
the empire; and this nomination was confirmed to him during
the life-time of his father. It was not, however, his fate to
survive him; but leaving a son, whose name is Themur, he,
as the representative of his father, is to succeed to the
dominion. 1 The disposition of this prince is good, and he is
endowed with wisdom and valour; of the latter he has given
proofs in several successful battles. Besides these, his majesty
has twenty-five sons by his concubines, all of them brave
soldiers, having been continually employed in the military
profession. These he has placed in the rank of nobles. Of his
legitimate sons, seven are at the head of extensive provinces
and kingdoms, 2 which they govern with wisdom and prudence,
as might be expected of the children of one whose great quali
ties have not been surpassed, in the general estimation, by any
person of the Tartar race.

CHAPTER VI

OF THE GREAT AND ADMIRABLE PALACE OF THE GRAND
KHAN, NEAR TO THE CITY OF KANBALU

THE grand khan usually resides during three months of the
year, namely, December, January, and February, in the great
city of Kanbalu, situated towards the north-eastern extremity
of the province of Cathay ; 3 and here, on the southern side of
the new city, is the site of his vast palace, the form and dimen
sions of which are as follows. In the first place is a square
enclosed with a wall and deep ditch; each side of the square
being eight miles in length, 4 and having at an equal distance

and in the early Venice epitome it is expressly said: " So primo hebbe
nome Chinchis chan per amor de Chinchis."

1 The name here written Themur, and in other versions Temur, is
evidently the well-known Tartar name of Timur, although the great
conqueror so called did not acquire his celebrity until a century after.

2 De Guignes enumerates ten of his sons, born of five empresses, and
mentions the provinces of Shensi, Sechuen, and Tibet as being governed
by Mangkola, the third son. P. Magalhanes notices the custom of
sending the princes of the royal family into the provinces with the title
of kings; but in the reign of Kang-hi their authority was merely nominal.

3 Relatively to the vast extent of the whole empire at that period,
Cathay, or Northern China, is termed by our author a province, although
it contained the capital of that empire, and the seat of government.

4 These dimensions, as applicable to a palace, even for an emperor of
China, appear at first view to be extravagant ; but the seeming difficulty
arises from the misapplication of a term, in calling that a palace which
was, in fact, the enclosure of a royal park and encampment.

The Imperial Palace of Kanbalu i6y

from each extremity an entrance-gate, for the concourse oi
people resorting thither from all quarters. Within this en
closure there is, on the four sides, an open space one mile in
breadth, where the troops are stationed ; l and this is bounded
by a second wall, enclosing a square of six miles, 2 having three
gates on the south side, and three on the north, the middle
portal of each being larger than the other two, and always
kept shut, excepting on the occasions of the emperor s entrance
or departure. Those on each side always remain open for the
use of common passengers. 3 In the middle of each division of
these walls is a handsome and spacious building, and conse
quently within the enclosure there are eight such buildings, in
which are deposited the royal military stores; one building
being appropriated to the reception of each class of stores.
Thus, for instance, the bridles, saddles, stirrups, and other
furniture serving for the equipment of cavalry, occupy one
storehouse; the bows, strings, quivers, arrows, and other
articles belonging to archery, occupy another; cuirasses, corse
lets, and other armour formed of leather, a third storehouse;
and so of the rest. Within this walled enclosure there is still
another, of great thickness, and its height is full twenty-five
feet. The battlements or crenated parapets are all white.
This also forms a square four miles in extent, each side being
one mile, and it has six gates, disposed like those of the former
enclosure. 4 It contains in like manner eight large buildings,

1 The area allotted to the troops upon this plain would be twenty-eight
square miles. Their number was, of course, very great, and being chiefly
cavalry, the barracks or sheds for their accommodation would necessarily
occupy a vast range. In the early part of the last century, the cavalry
stationed in and about Peking was reckoned at 80,000. Supposing it
to have been about 112,000 in the days of Kublai, this would allow only
a square mile for 4,000 horse.

2 As this second enclosure not only contained the royal arsenals, eight
in number, for every description of military store, but formed also a park
for deer, there is nothing remarkable in its extent. It is not easy, how
ever, to reconcile its position in respect to the city with some of the
circumstances here mentioned; but we must suppose that the interior
enclosure (afterwards described), which contained the palace properly
so called, was situated towards the northern side of this park, and was
at the same time contiguous to the southern wall of the city.

3 The custom of reserving particular gates for the exclusive use of the
emperor is still observed.

4 To this last enclosure it is that the appellation of the Palace should
be restricted ; and when we read the description of the Meidan of Ispahan,
or of the Escurial with its twenty-two courts, we shall not deem the area
of a square mile any extraordinary space to be occupied by the various
buildings required for such an establishment as that of Kublai . It is at
the same time to be remarked that there is a striking agreement between
the measure here stated and that assigned to the modern palace in the
descriptions we have from the Jesuits.

1 68 Travels of Marco Polo

similarly arranged, which are appropriated to the wardrobe of
the emperor. 1 The spaces between the one wall and the other
are ornamented with many handsome trees, and contain
meadows in which are kept various kinds of beasts, such as
stags, the animals that yield the musk, roe-bucks, fallow-deer,
and others of the same class. Every interval between the
walls, not occupied by buildings, is stocked in this manner.
The pastures have abundant herbage. The roads across them
being raised three feet above their level, and paved, no mud
collects upon them, nor rain-water settles, but on the con
trary runs off, and contributes to improve the vegetation.
Within these walls, which constitute the boundary of four
miles, stands the palace of the grand khan, the most extensive
that has ever yet been known. It reaches from the northern
to the southern wall, leaving only a vacant space (or court),
where persons of rank and the military guards pass and repass.
It has no upper floor, but the roof is very lofty. 2 The paved
foundation or platform on which it stands is raised ten spans
above the level of the ground, and a wall of marble, two paces
wide, is built on all sides, to the level of this pavement, within
the line of which the palace is erected; so that the wall, ex
tending beyond the ground plan of the building, and encom
passing the whole, serves as a terrace, where those who walk on
it are visible from without. Along the exterior edge of the
wall is a handsome balustrade, with pillars, which the people
are allowed to approach. 3 The sides of the great halls and the

1 It is well known to have been the practice of Eastern monarchs, from
the earliest ages, to deliver changes of raiment to those whom they
meant to distinguish by their favour. The Persian term khileU is gener
ally applied to these vestments, which consist of pelisses in the northern
parts of Asia, and of dresses of cloth, silk, or rnuslin, in the temperate
and warmer climates. We read of vast numbers of them being dis
tributed on the occasion of great victories, or the dismissal of important
embassies; and this may account for the bulk of the wardrobes or
buildings for what are here termed the paramenti of the emperor, which
may also include the regalia carried in their splendid processions.

2 It will be seen in the plates accompanying the accounts of various
embassies to Peking, that although the flooring of the palaces is elevated
from the ground, they consist of but a single story. The height of the
ornamented roofs is a striking feature in the architecture of these people.

3 The height of the terrace is said, in Ramusio s text, to be died palmi,
or about seven feet; but in the epitomes it is dot brazza e mezo, or about
twice that elevation; and this accords best with modern descriptions.
All the accounts of missionaries and travellers serve to show that, in
point of structure, materials, and style of embellishment, there has
existed a perfect resemblance between the buildings of Kublai, as described
by our author, and those of Kang-hi and Kien-long, in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries.

The Imperial Palace of Kanbalu 169

apartments are ornamented with dragons in carved work and
gilt, figures of warriors, of birds, and of beasts, with represen
tations of battles. The inside of the roof is contrived in such
a manner that nothing besides gilding and painting presents
itself to the eye. 1 On each of the four sides of the palace
there is a grand flight of marble steps, by which you ascend
from the level of the ground to the wall of marble which
surrounds the building, and which constitute the approach to
the palace itself. The grand hall is extremely long and wide,
and admits of dinners being there served to great multitudes
of people. The palace contains a number of separate cham
bers, all highly beautiful, and so admirably disposed that it
seems impossible to suggest any improvement to the system
of their arrangement. The exterior of the roof is adorned
with a variety of colours, red, green, azure, and violet, and
the sort of covering is so strong as to last for many years. 2
The glazing of the windows is so well wrought and so delicate
as to have the transparency of crystal. 3 In the rear of the
body of the palace there are large buildings containing several
apartments, where is deposited the private property of the
monarch, or his treasure in gold and silver bullion, precious
stones, and pearls, and also his vessels of gold and silver plate. 4

1 " Cette salle," adds Du Halde, " a environ cent trente pieds de
longueur, et est presque quarree. Le lambris est tout en sculpture
vernisse de verd, et charge de dragons dorez: les colonnes qui soutien-
nent le toit en dedans sont de six a sept pieds de circonference par le
bas : elles sont incrustees d une espece de pate enduite d un vernis rouge."
Tom. i. p. 117.

2 The roofs are invariably covered with baked tiles, which, for the
principal buildings, have a vitrified glazing of a bright colour. Such as
are used for the palaces at the present day are exclusively yellow; but
this etiquette may not have been so strictly adhered to under the dynasty
of the Yuen. " Le tout est convert de tuiles vernissees d un si beau
jaune, que de loin elles ne paroissent gueres moins eclatantes, que si elles
etoient dorees." Du Halde, torn. i. p. 116.

3 Ramusio employs the word vitreate, which I have translated glazing,
although there is no reason to suppose that glass was used for windows
in China at that period. The meaning may be, that the pellucid sub
stance employed for glazing (perhaps talc or laminae of shells) was so
delicately wrought (cost ben fatte e cost sottilmente) as to have nearly the
transparency of crystal. " Les fenetres des maisons," says De Guignes,
" sont garnies avec des coquilles minces et assez transparentes, ou avec
du papier." (Tom. ii. p. 178.) Staunton mentions that the windows
of some of the yachts or barges had glass panes, but the manufacture
was probably European.

4 In the modern palace, the buildings for this purpose are described as
being (less appropriately) round the court, in front of the great hall of
audience; but we ought not to b*e surprised at any variation with respect
to the arrangement of these buildings, when we learn that the whole ol
the palace has been repeatedly destroyed by fire

170 Travels of Marco Polo

Here are likewise the apartments of his wives and concu
bines; and in this retired situation he despatches business
with convenience,, being free from every kind of interrup
tion. On the other side of the grand palace, and opposite
to that in which the emperor resides, is another palace, in
every respect similar, appropriated to the residence of Chingis ;
his eldest son, at whose court are observed all the ceremonials
belonging to that of his father, as the prince who is to succeed
to the government of the empire. 1 Not far from the palace,
on the northern side, and about a bow-shot distance from the
surrounding wall, is an artificial mount of earth, the height of
which is full a hundred paces, and the circuit at the base about
a mile. . It is clothed with the most beautiful evergreen trees;
for whenever his majesty receives information of a handsome
tree growing in any place, he causes it to be dug up, with all its
roots and the earth about them, and however large and heavy
it may be, he has it transported by means of elephants to this
mount, and adds it to the verdant collection. From this per
petual verdure it has acquired the appellation of the Green
Mount. On its summit is erected an ornamental pavilion,
which is likewise entirely green. The view of this altogether,-
the mount itself, the trees, and the building, form a delightful
and at the same time a wonderful scene. In the northern
quarter also, and equally within the precincts of the city, there
is a large and deep excavation, judiciously formed, the earth
from which supplied the material for raising the mount. 2 It
is furnished with water by a small rivulet, and has the appear
ance of a fish-pond, but its use is for watering the cattle. The
stream passing from thence along an aqueduct, at the foot of
the Green Mount, proceeds to fill another great and very deep
excavation formed between the private palace of the emperor
and that of his son Chingis ; and the earth from hence equally

1 " A 1 est de la meme cour est un autre palais, habite par le prince
heritier, lorsqu il y en a un de declare." (De L isle, Descr. de la Ville
de Peking, p, 16.) It will not escape the observation of the reader that,
in a previous page, our author noticed the untimely death of this prince,
(see pp. 165, 166,) who, notwithstanding, is here mentioned as a living
person. This is obviously to be accounted for from the circumstance of
the work being composed, not from recollection merely, but from notes
made at different periods, amongst which a description of the palaces
might have been one of the earliest. Kublai also, the event of whose
death is related in the course of the returning journey, is spoken of
throughout the work as the emperor actually reigning.

2 This artificial hill exists at the present day, and retains its original
name of King-shan, or the Green Mountain; but it would seem, from
modern relations, that four others of inferior size have since been added.

The City of Tai-du 171

served to increase the elevation of the mount. In this lattei
basin there is great store and variety of fish, from which the
table of his majesty is supplied with any quantity that may
be wanted. The stream discharges itself at the opposite ex
tremity of the piece of water, and precautions are taken to
prevent the escape of the fish by placing gratings of copper or
iron at the places of its entrance and exit. It is stocked also
with swans and other aquatic birds. From the one palace to
the other there is a communication by means of a bridge
thrown across the water. Such is the description of this great
palace. We shall now speak of the situation and circum
stances of the city of Taidu.

CHAPTER VII

OF THE NEW CITY OF TAI-DU, BUILT NEAR TO THAT OF KANBALU
-OF A RULE OBSERVED RESPECTING THE ENTERTAINMENT
OF AMBASSADORS AND OF THE NIGHTLY POLICE OF THE
CITY

THE city of Kanbalu is situated near a large river in the pro
vince of Cathay, and was in ancient times eminently magnifi
cent and royal. The name itself implies : the city of the
sovereign;" 1 but his majesty having imbibed an opinion
from the astrologers, that it was destined to become rebellious

1 The name of this celebrated city, which our author writes Cambalu
(for Canbalu, the m being substituted for n at the end of a syllable, in
the old Italian, as well as in the Portuguese orthography), is by the
Arabians and Persians written Khan-balik and Khan-baligh, signifying,
in one of the dialects of Tartary, the " city of the khan or sovereign."
This terminating appellative is not uncommon, as we find it in Kabaligh
and Bish-baligh, cities of Turkistan; in Ordu-baligh, one of the names
of Kara-korum; and in Mu-baligh, or the " city of desolation," a name
given to Bamian, in the territory of Balkh, upon the occasion of its
destruction by Jengiz-khan. With respect to the particular situation
of the city, it is said, in the words of Ramusio, to have been " sopra
un gran fiuine," but in the Latin version, " juxta magnum fluvium,"
which affords more latitude. By this river must be understood the
Pe-ho, which is navigable for loaded vessels up to Tong-cheu, within
twelve miles of the capital; but in the higher part of its course it seems
to approximate nearer. Our knowledge of the country that surrounds
Pe-king is, however, extremely imperfect; nor do the different maps
accord with respect to the number or course of the streams that, coming
from the neighbouring mountains of Tartary, appear to unite at or above
Torig-cheu. It should be observed, also, that the old city of Yen-king,
or Khan-balig, might have stood some miles nearer to the Pe-ho than
the site of the more modern city of Peking.

i J2 Travels of Marco Polo

to his authority, resolved upon the measure of building another
capital, upon the opposite side of the river, where stand the
palaces just described: so that the new and the old cities are
separated from each other only by the stream that runs
between them. 1 The new-built city received the name of
Tai-du, 2 and all the Cathaians, that is, all those of the inhabi
tants who were natives of the province of Cathay, were com
pelled to evacuate the ancient city, and to take up their abode
in the new. Some of the inhabitants, however, of whose
loyalty he did not entertain suspicion, were suffered to remain,
especially because the latter, although of the dimensions that
shall presently be described, was not capable of containing
the same number as the former, which was of vast extent. 3
This new city is of a form perfectly square, and twenty-

1 This would seem to imply a removal of the capital to a different side
of the Pe-ho, or larger river just mentioned; but it may be thought more
probable that our author here speaks only of the rivulet which at the
present day passes between what are denominated the Chinese and the
Tartar cities, over which (however insignificant the stream) there is a
handsome bridge of communication. Martini, in his " Atlas Sinensis,"
distinguishes two streams as contributing to supply the city with water.

2 The name of Tai-du (more correctly written Ta-tu) signifies the
" great court," and was the Chinese appellation for the new city, which
the Tartars, and the western people in general, continued to name Khan-
baligh. A doubt may be entertained whether the city of Yen-king,
which Kubla i, from motives of superstition or of policy, abandoned,
occupied the site of that now called the ancient or Chinese city, which
is separated from the other only by a rivulet, and by the wall of the
latter. But there is evidence of a positive kind of their being the same;
for Yong-lo, the rebuilder of Peking, after it had been nearly destroyed
in the preceding wars, erected within the bounds of what was equally in
his time denominated the old city, and which could be no other than
that depopulated by Kublai a century and a half before, two remarkable
temples, one of them dedicated to the Heavens and the other to the
Earth, which temples are to be found inDu Halde s and De Lisle s plates,
and exist in the Chinese city at the present day. All the works of this
great monarch, the third of the dynasty by which the Mungals were
driven out, and who sat on the throne at the period of Shah Rokh s
embassy, were begun about the year 1406, and completed about 1421.

* In the " Memoires concernant les Chinois," we find the following
account of the extent of its walls at different periods: " Sous le Kin
(the dynasty overturned by Jengiz-khan) dont il fut aussi la capitale, il
eut soixante-quinze It de tour, ou sept lieues et demie. Les Yuen qui
le nommerent d abord la capitale du milieu, puis la grande capitale, ne
lui donnerent que six lieues de tour et onze portes, lorsqu ils en reparerent
les ruines en 1274. Le fondateur de la dynastie des Ming rasa deux de
ces portes du cote du Midi pour le degrader; et Yong-lo, qui en rebatit
les murailles en 1409, ne leur donna que quatre lieues de tour: c est leur
mesure d aujourd hui, etant restees les memes. Quant a la ville Chinoise,
ce fut Chin-tsong, de la dynastie precedente, qui en fit faire 1 enceinte en
murs de terre Tan 1524. . . . Ce ne fut qu en 1564 qu elle obtint 1 honneur
d etre incorporee a 1 ancienne ville, avec celui d avoir des murailles et
des portes en briques." Tom. ii. p. 553.

The City of Tai-du 173

four miles in extent, each of its sides being neither more nor
less than six miles. 1 It is enclosed with walls of earth, that
at the base are about ten paces thick, but gradually diminish
to the top, where the thickness is not more than three paces. 2
In all parts the battlements are white. 3 The whole plan of
the city was regularly laid out by line, and the streets in
general are consequently so straight, that when a person
ascends the wall over one of the gates, and looks right forward,
he can see the gate opposite to him on the other side of the
city. 4 In the public streets there are, on each side, booths
and shops of every description. 5 All the allotments of ground
upon which the habitations throughout the city were con
structed are square, and exactly on a line with each other;
each allotment being sufficiently spacious for handsome build
ings, with corresponding courts and gardens. One of these
was assigned to each head of a family; that is to say, such a
person of such a tribe had one square allotted to him, and so of
the rest. Afterwards the property passed from hand to hand.

1 The square form prevails much amongst the cities and towns of
China, wherever the nature of the ground and the course of the waters
admit of it. This probably had its origin in the principles of castra-
metation. The dimensions of the present Tartar city, according to De
Lisle, are eleven li in the length from north to south, by nine in width
from east to west, making forty li or fifteen miles in the whole extent.
He adds, that in the time of Kublai the extent was sixty li, or twenty-
two miles and a half, which does not differ materially from the measure
ment in the text. It appears, therefore, that when Yong-lo rebuilt the
walls of the ruined city, he contracted its limits, as it was natural for
him to do.

2 When it is said that the walls of the capital were of earth (di terra],
I am inclined to think that terra cotta or bricks should be understood;
as they were in general use amongst the Chinese from the earliest ages,
and employed in the construction of the great wall. It may be proper
to observe, that the distinguishing appellations of Tartar and Chinese
cities did not take place under the Yuen, or Mungal dynasty, nor until
the subjugation of the empire by the Tsing or present race of Manchu
Tartars, who succeeded to the Ming or Chinese dynasty, and drove the
native inhabitants from what is commonly termed the new or northern
city into the old or southern, to make room for their Tartar followers.

8 These battlements or merli must have been of solid materials (whether
of white bricks or stone) ; which seems to be inconsistent with the sup
position of a mud or turf rampart, unless there was at least a revetemcnt
of masonry. The parapet," says Staunton, was deeply crenated,
but had no regular embrazures." Vol. ii. p. 116.

4 The straightness of the streets of Peking is apparent from De Lisle s
plan, and corroborated by the accounts of all who have visited that city.

* " In front of most of the houses in this main street," says Staunton,
" were shops painted, gilt, and decorated like those of Tong-choo-foo,
but in a grander style. Over some of them were broad terraces covered
with shrubs and flowers. . . . Outside the shops, as well as within them,
was displayed a variety of goods for sale." Vol. ii. p. 118.

174 Travels of Marco Polo

In this manner the whole interior of the city is disposed in
squares, so as to resemble a chess-board, and planned out with
a degree of precision and beauty impossible to describe. The
wall of the city has twelve gates, three on each side of the
square, and over each gate and compartment of the wall there!
is a handsome building; so that on each side of the square
there are five such buildings, containing large rooms, in which
are disposed the arms of those who form the garrison of the
city, 1 every gate being guarded by a thousand men. 2 It is not
to be understood that such a force is stationed there in conse
quence of the apprehension of danger from any hostile power
whatever, but as a guard suitable to the honour and dignity of
the sovereign. Yet it must be allowed that the declaration
of the astrologers has excited in his mind a degree of suspicion
with regard to the Cathaians. In the centre of the city there is
a great bell suspended in a lofty building, which is sounded
every night, and after the third stroke no person dares to be
found in the streets, 3 unless upon some urgent occasion, such
as to call assistance to a woman in labour, or a man attacked
with sickness; and even in such necessary cases the person is
required to carry a light. 4

Withoutside of each of the gates is a suburb so wide that it
reaches to and unites with those of the other nearest gates on
both sides, and in length extends to the distance of three or

1 The practice of erecting places of arms over gates subsists at the
present day.

2 This would seem to be the number that usually constitutes the guard
of important gates in that country. " Having travelled about six 01
eight miles," says John Bell, " we arrived at the famous wall of China.
We entered at a great gate, which is shut every night, and always guarded
by a thousand men." -Tom. i. p. 336.

3 " II y a dans chaque ville," says Du Halde, " de grosses cloches, ou un
tambour d une grandeur extraordinaire, qui servent a marquer les veilles
de la nuit. Chaque veille est de deux heures: la premiere commence
vers les huit heures du soir. Pendant les deux heures que dure cette
premiere veille, on frappe de terns en terns un coup, ou sur la cloche, ou
sur le tambour. Quand elle est finie, et que la seconde veille commence,
on frappe deux coups taut qu elle dure : on en frappe trois a la troisieme,
et ainsi de toutes les autres." (Tom. ii. p. 50.) To this third or mid
night watch it is that our author alludes, when a treble stroke is given.
Staunton also speaks of " the great fabric, of considerable height, which
includes a bell of prodigious size and cylindric form, that, struck on the
outside with a wooden mallet, emits a sound distinctly heard throughout
the capital." Tom. ii. p. 122.

4 " Les petites rues qui aboutissent aux grandes, ont des portes faites
de treillis de bois, qui n ernpechent pas de voir ceux qui y marchent. . . .
Les portes a treillis sont fermees la nuit par le corps de garde, et il ne la
fait ouvrir que rarement, a gens connus, qui ont une lanterne a la main,
et qui sortent pour une bonne raison, comme seroit celle d appeller un
medecin." Du Halde, torn. i. p. 115.

Suburbs of Tai-du 175

four miles,, so that the number of inhabitants in these suburbs
exceeds that of the city itself. Within each suburb there are,
at intervals,, as far perhaps as a mile from the city, many
hotels, or caravanserais, in which the merchants arriving from
various parts take up their abode ; l and to each description
of people a separate building is assigned, as we should say,
one to the Lombards, another to the Germans, and a third to
the French. The number of public women who prostitute
themselves for money, reckoning those in the new city as well
as those in the suburbs of the old, is twenty-five thousand. 2
To each hundred and to each thousand of these there are
superintending officers appointed, who are under the orders
of a captain-general. The motive for placing them under
such command is this : when ambassadors arrive charged with
any business in which the interests of the grand khan are con
cerned, it is customary to maintain them at his majesty s
expense, and in order that they may be treated in the most
honourable manner, the captain is ordered to furnish nightly
to each individual of the embassy one of these courtezans,
who is likewise to be changed every night, for which service,
as it is considered in the light of a tribute they owe to the
sovereign, they do not receive any remuneration. Guards,
in parties of thirty or forty, continually patrol the streets
during the course of the night, and make diligent search for

1 These establishments for the accommodation of persons arriving
from distant countries are incidentally noticed by Trigault (Histoire du
Royaume de la Chine), who speaks of " le palais des estrangers " at
Peking. It would seem, however, that they are now situated within
the walls of the Chinese town, rather than in the suburbs.

2 It is evident that there is here a mistake in Ramusio s text, as not
only all the modern authorities agree in the fact of the public women
being excluded from the city and confined to the suburbs, but it is ex
pressly so stated in the other versions of our author. This regulation of
police appears to have been equally enforced under later dynasties.

II y a," says Du Halde, des femmes publiques et prostituees a la
Chine comme ailleurs, mais comme ces sortes de personnes sont ordinaire-
ment la cause de quelques desordres, il ne leur est pas permis de demeurer
dans I enceiiite des villes: leur logement doit etre hors des murs; encore
ne peuvent-elles pas avoir des maisons particulieres; elles logent plusieurs
ensemble et souvent sous la conduite d un homme, qui est responsable
du desordre, s il en arrivoit; au reste ces femmes libertines ne sont que
tolerees, et on les regarde comme infames." (Tom. ii. p. 51.) Respect
ing their numbers, under the reign of Kang-hi, the missionaries do not
furnish us with any information. [In the early Latin text of Marco
Polo, printed by the Paris Geographical Society, we here read: " Et
istae mulieres qua3 f allunt pro pecunia sunt bene viginti millia ; et omnes
habent satisfacere, propter multam gentem quae illuc concurrit de merca-
toribus et aliis forensibus. Et sic potestis videre si in ista civitate est
maxima gens, si mala3 mulieres sunt tot."]

176

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persons who may be from their homes at an unseasonable
hour, that is, after the third stroke of the great bell. When
any are met with under such circumstances, they immedi
ately apprehend and confine them, and take them in the morn
ing for examination before officers appointed for that purpose/
who, upon the proof of any delinquency, sentence them,
according to the nature of the offence, to a severer or lighter
infliction of the bastinade, which sometimes, however, occa
sions their death. It is in this manner that crimes are usually
punished amongst these people, from a disinclination to the
shedding of blood, which their baksis or learned astrologers
instruct them to avoid. 2 Having thus described the interior
of the city of Tai-du, we shall now speak of the disposition to
rebellion shown by its Cathaian inhabitants.

CHAPTER VIII

OF THE TREASONABLE PRACTICES EMPLOYED TO CAUSE THE
CITY OF KANBALU TO REBEL, AND OF THE APPREHENSION
AND PUNISHMENT OF THOSE CONCERNED

PARTICULAR mention will hereafter be made of the establish
ment of a council of twelve persons, who had the power of
disposing, at their pleasure, of the lands, the governments,
and everything belonging to the state. Amongst these was
a Saracen, named Achmac, 3 a crafty and bold man, whose
influence with the grand khan surpassed that of the other
members. To such a degree was his master infatuated with
him that he indulged him in every liberty. It was discovered,
indeed, after his death, that he had by means of spells so
fascinated his majesty as to oblige him to give ear and credit

1 " Us ne permettent a personne de marcher la nuit, et ils interrogent
meme ceux que Tempereur auroit envoye pour quelques affaires. Si
leur reponse donne lieu au moindre soupcon, on les met en arret au corps
de garde, . . . C est par ce bel ordre, qui s observe avec la derniere
exactitude, que la paix, le silence, et la surete regnent dans toute la ville."

-Du Halde, torn. i. p. 115.

2 It has been already observed, that the priests of Buddha, who in
Tibet are called lamas, are by the Arabians and Persians named bakshi ;
and it is well known, that to abstain from shedding of blood, and parti
cularly from bloody sacrifices, is the characteristic precept of that sect,
in which, say the Brahmans, his disciples make virtue and religion to

consist.

8 The name of this powerful and corrupt Arabian minister, whom the
Chinese call Ahama, was doubtless Ahmed, the Achmet of our Turkish
historians.

Treasons of Achmac 1 77

to whatever he represented, and by these means was enabled to
act in all matters according to his own arbitrary will. He
gave away all the governments and public offices, pronounced
judgment upon all offenders, and when he was disposed to
sacrifice any man to whom he bore ill-will, he had only to go to
the emperor and say to him, " Such a person has committed
an offence against your majesty, and is deserving of death,"
when the emperor was accustomed to reply, Do as you judge
best; " upon which he caused him to be immediately executed.
So evident were the proofs of the authority he possessed, and
of his majesty s implicit faith in his representations, that none
had the hardiness to contradict him in any matter; nor was
there a person, however high in rank or office, who did not
stand in awe of him. If any one was accused by him of
capital crime, however anxious he might be to exculpate him
self, he had not the means of refuting the charge, because he
could not procure an advocate, none daring to oppose the will
of Achmac. By these means he occasioned many to die un
justly. Besides this, there was no handsome female who
became an object of his sensuality that he did not contrive to
possess, taking her as a wife if she was unmarried, or other
wise compelling her to yield to his desires. When he obtained
information of any man having a beautiful daughter, he de
spatched his emissaries to the father of the girl, with instruc
tions to say to him: " What are your views with regard to
this handsome daughter of yours? You cannot do better
than give her in marriage to the Lord Deputy or Vicegerent
(that is, to Achmac, for so they termed him, as implying that
he was his majesty s representative). " We shall prevail upon
him to appoint you to such a government or to such an office
for three years." Thus tempted, he is prevailed upon to part
with his child ; and the matter being so far arranged, Achmac
repairs to the emperor and informs his majesty that a certain
government is vacant, or that the period for which it is held
will expire on such a day, and recommends the father as a
person well qualified to perform the duties. To this his

1 The term employed by Ramusio is Bailo, which particularly belonged
to the person who represented, at Constantinople, the republic of Venice;
not as ambassador (-when the appointment first took place), but as joint
sovereign with the Latin emperor. It is not easy to find an equivalent
term in our language ; nor does the Chinese title of Colao convey the idea
intended to be given, of his inordinate power. The Arabs indeed might
have styled him Khalifah, which signifies a substitute, deputy, or vice
gerent.

i 7 8

Travels of Marco Polo

majesty gives his consent,, and the appointment is immedi
ately carried into effect. By such means as these, either from
the ambition of holding high offices or the apprehension of his
power, he obtained the sacrifice of all the most beautiful young
women, either under the denomination of wives, or as the
slaves of his pleasure. He had sons to the number of twenty-
five, who held the highest offices of the state, and some of them,
availing themselves of the authority of their father, formed
adulterous connexions, and committed many other unlawful
and atrocious acts. Achmac had likewise accumulated great
wealth, for every person who obtained an appointment found it
necessary to make him a considerable present.

During a period of twenty-two years he exercised this un
controlled sway. 1 At length the natives of the country,
that is, the Cathaians, no longer able to endure his multiplied
acts of injustice or the flagrant wickedness committed against
their families, held meetings in order to devise means of
putting him to death and raising a rebellion against the
government. Amongst the persons principally concerned in
this plot was a Cathaian, named Chen-ku, a chief of six thou
sand men, who, burning with resentment on account of the
violation of his mother, his wife, and his daughter, proposed
the measure to one of his countrymen, named Van-ku, who
was at the head of ten thousand men, 2 and recommended its
being carried into execution at the time when the grand khan,
having completed his three months residence in Kanbalu, had
departed for his palace of Shan-du, 3 and when his son Chingis
also had retired to the place he was accustomed to visit at that
season; because the charge of the city was then entrusted to
Achmac, who communicated to his master whatever matters
occurred during his absence, and received in return the signi
fication of his pleasure. Van-ku and Chen-ku, having held

1 His death took place in 1281, and his functions of Minister of Finance
are first noticed by De Guignes (Histoire des Mogols de la Chine) in 1262;
which includes a space of nineteen years: but he might have been in
office some time before his extortions gave notoriety to his name.

z I apprehend that these were not military commands, but that the
civil jurisdiction of the country was established on a footing analogous
to that of the army. At the present day every tenth Chinese inhabitant
is responsible for the conduct (so far as the public peace is concerned)
of nine of his neighbours. Such was also the principle of our English
tithings and hundreds. These conspirators were evidently citizens,
not soldiers.

3 It will appear that, according to the Chinese authorities, this oppor
tunity of the emperor s periodical absence was actually seized by the
conspirators.

Conspiracy against Achmac 179

this consultation together, imparted their designs to some of
the leading persons of the Cathaians, and through them to their
friends in many other cities. It was accordingly determined
amongst them that, on a certain day, immediately upon their
perceiving the signal of a fire, they should rise and put to death
all those who wore beards; and should extend the signal to
other places, in order that the same might be carried into effect
throughout the country. The meaning of the distinction
with regard to beards was this; that whereas the Cathaians
themselves are naturally beardless, the Tartars, the Saracens,
and the Christians wear beards. 1 It should be understood that
the grand khan not having obtained the sovereignty of Cathay
by any legal right, but only by force of arms, had no con
fidence in the inhabitants, and therefore bestowed all the
provincial governments and magistracies upon Tartars, Sara
cens, Christians, and other foreigners, who belonged to his
household, and in whom he could trust. In consequence of
this, his government was universally hated by the natives,
who found themselves treated as slaves by these Tartars, and
still worse by the Saracens. 2

Their plans being thus arranged, Van-ku and Chen-ku con
trived to enter the palace at night, where the former, taking
his place on one of the royal seats, caused the apartment to be
lighted up, and sent a messenger to Achmac, who resided in
the old city, requiring his immediate attendance upon Chingis,
the emperor s son, who (he should say) had unexpectedly
arrived that night. Achmac was much astonished at the in
telligence, but, being greatly in awe of the prince, instantly
obeyed. 3 Upon passing the gate of the (new) city, he met a
Tartar officer named Kogatai, the commandant of the guard
of twelve thousand men, who asked him whither he was going
at that late hour. He replied that he was proceeding to wait
upon Chingis, of whose arrival he had just heard. " How is
it possible," said the officer, " that he can have arrived in so
secret a manner, that I should not have been aware of his

1 It is not in strictness a fact that the Chinese are naturally beardless;
but, like the Malays, their beards are slight, arid the growth of them is
discouraged, excepting in particular cases.

2 " Les historiens Chinois," says P. Gaubil, " exagerent les defauts de
Houpilie (Kubla i), et ne parlent gueres de ses vertus. Us lui reprochent
beaucoup d entetement pour les superstitions et les enchantemens des
Lamas, et ils se plaignent qu il a donne trop d autorite aux gens d Occi
dent." Observ. Chronol. p. 201.

3 The jealousy with which this prince regarded the conduct of the
minister is rep^nfprP.y noticed.

180 Travels of Marco Polo

approach in time to order a party of his guards to attend
him? In the meanwhile the two Cathaians felt assured
that if they could but succeed in despatching Achmac they had
nothing further to apprehend. Upon his entering the palace
and seeing so many lights burning, he made his prostrations
before Van-ku, supposing him to be the prince,, when Chen-ku,
who stood there provided with a sword, severed his head from
his body. Kogatai had stopped at the door, but upon observ
ing what had taken place, exclaimed that there was treason
going forward, and instantly let fly an arrow at Van-ku as he
sat upon the throne, which slew him. He then called to his
men, who seized Chen-ku, and despatched an order into the
city, that every person found out of doors should be put to
death. The Cathaians perceiving, however, that the Tartars
had discovered the conspiracy, and being deprived of their
leaders, one of whom was killed and the other a prisoner, kept
within their houses, and were unable to make the signals to
the other towns, as had been concerted. Kogatai immediately
sent messengers to the grand khan, with a circumstantial
relation of all that had passed, who, in return, directed him to
make a diligent investigation of the treason, and to punish,
according to the degree of their guilt, those whom he should
find to have been concerned. On the following day, Kogatai
examined all the Cathaians, and upon such as were principals
in the conspiracy he inflicted capital punishment. The same
was done with respect to the other cities that were known to
have participated in the guilt.

When the grand khan returned to Kanbalu, he was de
sirous of knowing the causes of what had happened, and then
learned that the infamous Achmac and seven of his sons (for
all were not equally culpable) had committed those enormities
which have been described. He gave orders for removing the
treasure which had been accumulated by the deceased to an
incredible amount, from the place of his residence in the old
city to the new, where it was deposited in his own treasury.

1 It must have been at the southern gate that the minister, on his way
from the old city, was challenged by the officer commanding the guard,
whilst the prince, had he arrived as was pretended, would have entered
by the northern or the western gates, being those which opened towards
the country palaces. The words of the latter must therefore be under
stood as expressive only of surprise that he should not have had an im
mediate report from the proper officer, and not as implying a direct con
tradiction of the fact. From the sequel it appears that this officer as
well as Ahama proceeded on the supposition of the prince being actually
in the palace.

The Guard of the Grand Khan 1 8 1

He likewise directed that his body should be taken from the
tomb, and thrown into the street to be torn in pieces by the
dogs. 1 The sons who had followed the steps of their father
in his iniquities he caused to be flayed alive. Reflecting also
upon the principles of the accursed sect of the Saracens,
which indulge them in the commission of every crime, and
allow them to murder those who differ from them on points
of faith, so that even the nefarious Achmac and his sons might
have supposed themselves guiltless, he held them in contempt
and abomination. Summoning, therefore, these people to
his presence, he forbade them to continue many practices en
joined to them by their law, 2 commanding that in future their
marriages should be regulated by the custom of the Tartars,
and that instead of the mode of killing animals for food, by
cutting their throats, they should be obliged to open the belly.
At the time that these events took place Marco Polo was on
the spot. We shall now proceed to what relates to the estab
lishment of the court kept by the grand khan.

CHAPTER IX

OF THE PERSONAL GUARD OF THE GRAND KHAN

THE body-guard of the grand khan consists, as is well known
to every one, of twelve thousand horseman, who are termed
kasitan, which signifies " soldiers devoted to their master.
It is not, however, from any apprehensions entertained by
him that he is surrounded by this guard, but as matter of state.
These twelve thousand men are commanded by four superior
officers, each of whom is at the head of three thousand; and
each three thousand does constant duty in the palace during

1 " Kublai n ouvrit les yeux sur ia conduite d Ahama qu apres 1 exe-
cution; il fit deterrer, mettre en pieces le corps du ministre Ahama, et
iivra tous ses biens au pillage." (P. 174.) The manner in which our
author states the wealth to have been disposed of, is more consistent
both with the particular character of Kublai and with the general prac
tice of the country than the giving it up to plunder.

2 Interdicts of this nature, regarding only foreigners, the Chinese
annals were not likely to notice, and we have no other authority than
that of our author for this humiliation of the Mahometans. Many of
them were subsequently employed in the higher ranks of the army.

3 1 cannot trace this word (probably much corrupted) in any Mungal
vocabulary, and dare not trust myself in the dubious paths of Chinese
etymology, where the sound only is to be the guide. [In the early Latin
text it is quiesitani.]

1 82 Travels of Marco Polo

three successive days and nights, at the expiration of which
they are relieved by another division. When all the four have
completed their period of duty,, it comes again to the turn of the
first. During the day-time., the nine thousand who are of!
guard do not,, however,, quit the palace, unless when employed
upon the service of his majesty, or when the individuals are
called away for their domestic concerns, in which case they
must obtain leave of absence through their commanding officer;
and if, in consequence of any serious occurrence, such as that
of a father, a brother, or any near relation being at the point of
death, their immediate return should be prevented, they must
apply to his majesty for an extension of their leave. But in
the night-time these nine thousand retire to tbeir quarters.

CHAPTER X

OF THE STYLE IN WHICH THE GRAND KHAN HOLDS HIS PUBLIC
COURTS, AND SITS AT TABLE WITH ALL HIS NOBLES OF
THE MANNER IN WHICH THE DRINKING VESSELS OF GOLD
AND SILVER, FILLED WITH THE MILK OF MARES AND
CAMELS, ARE DISPOSED IN THE HALL AND OF THE
CEREMONY THAT TAKES PLACE WHEN HE DRINKS

WHEN his majesty holds a grand and public court, those who
attend it are seated in the following order. The table of the
sovereign is placed before his elevated throne, and he takes his
seat on the northern side, with his face turned towards the
south; and next to him, on his left hand, sits the empress. On
his right hand, upon seats somewhat lower, are placed his sons,
grandsons, and other persons connected with him by blood,
that is to say, who are descended from the imperial stock.
The seat, however, of Chingis, his eldest son, is raised a little
above those of his other sons, whose heads are nearly on a
level with the feet of the grand khan. The other princes and
the nobility have their places at still lower tables; and the
same rules are observed with respect to the females, the wives
of the sons, grandsons, and other relatives of the grand khan
being seated on the left hand, at tables in like manner gradu
ally lower ; l then follow the wives of the nobility and military

1 At the modern Chinese festivals no women, of any class whatever,
make their appearance; but during the reign of Kublai, the Tartar
customs were blended with the Chinese at the imperial court; and ac-

The Court of the Grand Khan 183

officers: so that all are seated according to their respective
ranks and dignities, in the places assigned to them, and to
which they are entitled. The tables are arranged in such a
manner that the grand khan, sitting on his elevated throne,
can overlook the whole. It is not, however, to be understood
that all who assemble on such occasions can be accommodated
at tables. The greater part of the officers, and even of the
nobles, on the contrary, eat, sitting upon carpets, in the hall ;
and on the outside stand a great multitude of persons who
come from different countries, and bring with them many rare
and curious articles. Some of these are feudatories, who
desire to be reinstated in possessions that have been taken
from them, and who always make their appearance upon the
appointed days of public festivity, or occasions of royal
marriages. 1

In the middle of the hall, where the grand khan sits at table,
there is a magnificent piece of furniture, made in the form of
a square coffer, each side of which is three paces in length,
exquisitely carved in figures of animals, and gilt. It is hollow
within, for the purpose of receiving a capacious vase, shaped
like a jar, and of precious materials, calculated to hold about
a tun, and filled with wine. 2 On each of its four sides stands

cording to those, the females were regarded as efficient members of
society. Even at the present day the Tartar women (who are distin
guished as such, although descended of families who have been settled
in China for many generations) enjoy a degree of liberty to which the
Chinese women are strangers. Under the dynasty which succeeded
that of the Yuen or Mungals, the females of rank were spectators of the
festival, although themselves unseen.

1 It seems to have always been the policy of the Chinese court to defer
the reception of ambassadors and their presents, until the occasion of
some public festival; by which the double purpose is answered, of giving
additional splendour to the business of the day, and at the same time of
impressing the strangers with the magnificence of the ceremony attend
ing the delivery of their credentials. It may likewise be observed in the
accounts of all European embassies, that their presentations are accom
panied by those of the envoys or deputies of the neighbouring or de
pendent states.

2 Although the juice of the grape is expressed in some parts of China,
what is usually termed Chinese wine is a fermented liquor from grain.

1 This conversation being finished," says John Bell, " the emperor gave
the ambassador, with his own hand, a gold cup, full of warm tarassun
(written dirasoun in the journal of Shah Rokh s embassy), a sweet, fer
mented liquor, made of various sorts of grain, as pure and strong as
canary wine, of a disagreeable smell, although not unpleasant to the
taste." (Vol. ii. p. 8.) During the repast," says Staunton, " he sent
them (the English) several dishes from his own table; and, when jt was
over, he sent for them, and presented with his own hands to them a
goblet of warm Chinese wine, not unlike Madeira of an inferior quality/*
(Vol. ii. p. 237.) Pallas says that the tarassun may be compared to a

184

Travels of Marco Polo

a smaller vessel, containing about a hogshead, one of which is
filled with mare s milk, another with that of the camel, and
so of the others, according to the kinds of beverage in use. 1
Within this buffet are also the cups or flagons belonging to his
majesty, for serving the liquors. Some of them are of beauti
ful gilt plate. 2 Their size is such that, when filled with wine
or other liquor, the quantity would be sufficient for eight or
ten men. Before every two persons who have seats at the
tables, one of these flagons is placed, 3 together with a kind of
ladle, in the form of a cup with a handle, also of plate; to be
used not only for taking the wine out of the flagon, but for
lifting it to the head. This is observed as well with respect to
the women as the men. The quantity and richness of the
plate belonging to his majesty is quite incredible. 4 Officers of
rank are likewise appointed, whose duty it is to see that all
strangers who happen to arrive at the time of the festival, and
are unacquainted with the etiquette of the court, are suitably
accommodated with places; and these stewards are continu
ally visiting every part of the hall, inquiring of the guests if
there is anything with which they are unprovided, or whether
any of them wish for wine, milk, meat, or other articles, in

mixture of brandy with English beer. (Reise, dritter Theil, p. 131.)
" Us ne laissent pas de boire souvent du vin," says Du Halde: " ils le
font d une espece particuliere de ris, different de celui dont ils se nour-
rissent."- -Tom. ii. p. 118.

1 That milk is the favourite beverage of the Tartars is well known;
and as the court and the army were, at the period in question, almost ex
clusively of that nation, we must not be surprised to find it introduced
at a festival in the capital of China. With respect to the probability of
camels milk being found there, Staunton notices the employment of
camels or dromedaries in great numbers, for the conveyance of goods,
in the parts of Tartary bordering on the northern provinces of that
country, and Du Halde enumerates les chameaux a deux bosses "
amongst the Chinese animals.

* Ramusio s expression is, " Sonvi alcuni d oro bellissimi, che si chia-
mano vernique," and he again uses verniqua as the name of the vessel.
I suspect, however, some confusion. Vernicato d oro (from vernice,
varnish,) signifies gilt or washed with gold, and verniqua seems to be con
nected with this meaning. Besides, it is obvious that vessels capable of
containing liquor for eight or ten persons, would, if formed of massive
gold, be much too ponderous for use.

3 The tables at Chinese feasts are small, and generally calculated for
two persons only.

4 After plundering a great part of the world, it is not surprising that
the family of Jengiz-khan should be possessed of a quantity of the pre
cious metals enormously large in proportion to what circulated in Europe
or Asia before the discovery of the Mexican and Peruvian mines. Frequent
mention is made of golden cups or goblets, and B<ell speaks of large dishes
of massive gold sent by the emperor to their lodgings.

Manner of Feasting at Court 185

which case it is immediately brought to them by the atten
dants. 1

At each door of the grand hall, or of whatever part the grand
khan happens to be in, stand two officers, of a gigantic figure,
one on each side, with staves in their hands, for the purpose of
preventing persons from touching the threshold with their
feet, and obliging them to step beyond it. If by chance any
one is guilty of this offence, these janitors take from him his
garment, which he must redeem for money; or, when they do
not take the garment, they inflict on him such number of blows
as they have authority for doing. But, as strangers may be
unacquainted with the prohibition, officers are appointed to
introduce them, by whom they are warned of it; and this
precaution is used because touching the threshold is there re
garded as a bad omen. 2 In departing from the hall, as some
of the company may be affected by the liquor, it is impossible
to guard against the accident, and the order is not then
strictly enforced. 3 The numerous persons who attend at
the sideboard of his majesty, and who serve him with
victuals and drink, are all obliged to cover their noses and
mouths with handsome veils or cloths of worked silk, in
order that his victuals or his wine may not be affected by their
breath. When drink is called for by him, and the page in
waiting has presented it, he retires three paces and kneels
down, upon which the courtiers, and all who are present, in
like manner make their prostration. At the same moment all
the musical instruments, of which there is a numerous band
begin to play, and continue to do so until he has ceased drink
ing, when all the company recover their posture; and this
reverential salutation is made so often as his majesty drinks. 4
It is unnecessary to say anything of the victuals, because it

1 For the degree of civilization which these attentions imply, we should
give credit to the long-established usages of the conquered people, rather
than to any regulations introduced by the family then on the throne.
All our travellers concur in their description of the order and propriety
observed at these entertainments, where a silence reigns approaching to
solemnity.

2 This superstition is noticed both by Plan de Carpin and Rubruquis
as existing amongst the Tartars.

* This is one of the innumerable instances of naivete or honest simplicity
in our author s relations and remarks. Inebriety was the favourite vice
of the Tartars, and at this period it had been but partially corrected by
the more sober example of the Chinese.

4 Music invariably accompanies these festivities. " The music," says
John Bell, " played all the time of dinner. The chief instruments were
flutes, harps, and lutes, all tuned to the. Chinese taste." Vol. ii. p. 13

i 86 Travels of Marco Polo

may well be imagined that their abundance is excessive,
When the repast is finished, and the tables have been removed,
persons of various descriptions enter the hall,, and amongst
these a troop of comedians and performers on different instru
ments, as also tumblers and jugglers, who exhibit their skill in
the presence of the grand khan, to the high amusement and
gratification of all the spectators. 1 When these sports are con
cluded, the people separate, and each returns to hi own house.

CHAPTER XI

OF THE FESTIVAL THAT IS KEPT THROUGHOUT THE DOMINIONS
OF THE GRAND KHAN ON THE TWENTY-EIGHTH OF SEPTEM
BER, BEING THE ANNIVERSARY OF HIS NATIVITY

ALL the Tartar and other subjects of the grand khan celebrate
as a festival the day of his majesty s birth, which took place
on the twenty-eighth day of the month of September; 2 and
this is their greatest festival, excepting only that kept on the
first day of the year, which shall be hereafter described. Upon
this anniversary the grand khan appears in a superb dress of
cloth of gold, and on the same occasion full twenty thousand
nobles and military officers are clad by him in dresses similar
to his own in point of colour and form; but the materials are
not equally rich. They are, however, of silk, and of the colour
of gold ; 3 and along with the vest they likewise receive a girdle

1 These histrionic, athletic, and juggling exhibitions, which at all
periods have very much resembled each other, will be found circum
stantially described in the accounts of the several embassies to Pekin,
from that of Shah Rokh, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, to
those of the English and Dutch, in the latter part of the eighteenth.

2 According to the " Histoire generale de la Chine" (p. 282), Kublai
or Hupilaii (as the Chinese pronounce the name), was born in the eighth
moon of the year corresponding to 1216; which, as will be seen in a sub
sequent note respecting the commencement of the Kataian year, answers
satisfactorily to the month of September, as stated by our author.

3 Although yellow has long been the imperial colour in China, it is
said not to have been such at all periods, some of the early dynasties
having affected red and other colours. It may be conjectured that the
attachment to it has proceeded from its being worn by the predominant
sect of lamas in Tibet, to whose superstitions the emperors of China
have been zealously addicted; although, on the other hand, it is possible
that this sect of lamas may have adopted the imperial colour. To
Kublai, indeed, the establishment of the lama hierarchy, on its present
footing, is by some attributed, and the first Dalai lama is said to have
been nominated by him. Others, however, suppose that the titles of
Pala i lama and Panchan lama were not conferred before the reign of

Festival of the Grand Khan s Nativity 187

of chamois leather,, curiously worked with gold and silver
thread, and also a pair of boots. 1 Some of the dresses are
ornamented with precious stones and pearls to the value of a
thousand bezants of gold, and are given to those nobles who,
from their confidential employments, are nearest to his
majesty s person, and are termed quiecitari? These dresses
are appointed to be worn on the thirteen solemn festivals cele
brated in the thirteen (lunar) months of the year, 3 when those
who are clad in them make an appearance that is truly royal.
When his majesty assumes any particular dress, the nobles of
his court wear corresponding, but less costly, dresses, which
are always in readiness. 4 They are not annually renewed, but
on the contrary are made to last about ten years. From this
parade an idea may be formed of the magnificence of the grand
khan, which is unequalled by that of any monarch in the
world.

On the occasion of this festival of the grand khan s nativity,
all his Tartar subjects, and likewise the people of every king
dom and province throughout his dominions, send him valu
able presents, according to established usage. Many persons
who repair to court in order to solicit principalities to which
they have pretensions, also bring presents, and his majesty
accordingly gives direction to the tribunal of twelve, who have
cognisance of such matters, to assign to them such territories
and governments as may be proper. 5 Upon this day likewise
all the Christians, idolaters, and Saracens, together with every

Hiuen-te, fifth emperor of the Ming. Both dynasties appear to have
been assiduous in their encouragement of these ecclesiastics, through
whose influence they were enabled to govern the western provinces with
more facility.

1 " People of condition," says the Abbe Grosier, " never go abroad
but in boots, which are generally of satin." This article of dress is again
mentioned in chap. xxvi.

2 This word appears to be bastard Italian, a noun of agency formed
from the verb " quiescere," and may be thought to denote those persons
who, throughout the East, are employed, in various modes, to lull great
personages to rest.

Le calendrier ordinaire," observes the younger De Guignes, " divise
Pannee par mois lunaires." Voy. a Peking, torn. ii. p. 418.

4 This uniformity of court-dress is not the practice in modern times ;
on the contrary, the imperial colour is confined to the family of the
sovereign.

5 It may be inferred from hence that all the feudal principalities,
governments, and public offices, were bestowed upon those who brought
the richest presents, or, in other words, were sold to the highest bidders.
The boundless expenditure of this monarch, on the one hand, and the
avaricious propensity with which he is reproached, appear to have pro
duced a system of general rapacity. It is probable, however, that the
avarice may have been only inferred from the extortion.

1 88 Travels of Marco Polo

other description of people, offer up devout prayers to their
respective gods and idols, that they may bless and preserve
the sovereign, and bestow upon him long life, health, and
prosperity. Such, and so extensive, are the rejoicings on the
return of his majesty s birth-day. We shall now speak of
another festival, termed the White Feast, celebrated at the
commencement of the year.

CHAPTER XII

OF THE WHITE FEAST, HELD ON THE FIRST DAY OF THE MONTH
OF FEBRUARY, BEING THE COMMENCEMENT OF THEIR YEAR
OF THE NUMBER OF PRESENTS THEN BROUGHT AND OF
THE CEREMONIES THAT TAKE PLACE AT A TABLE WHEREON
IS INSCRIBED THE NAME OF THE GRAND KHAN

IT is well ascertained that the Tartars date the commence
ment of their year from the month of February, 1 and on that
occasion it is customary for the grand khan, as well as all who
are subject to him, in their several countries, to clothe them
selves in white garments, which, according to their ideas, are
the emblem of good fortune: 2 and they assume this dress at

1 In this assertion our author presents a most unexceptionable test
of his authenticity. It must be observed that, in stating the commence
ment of the year to be reckoned from the month of February (del mese
di Febraio), he does not fix it to any precise day of our calendar; which,
in fact, he could not have done with correctness; and although Ramusio,
in his title to the chapter, mentions the first day of the month, and the
Latin version implies the same by the phrase of "in die calendarum
Februarii," it is otherwise in the Italian epitomes, and their reading is
justified by the actual circumstances. In the " Epochae celebriores " of
Ulugh Beig (the son of Shah Rokh), translated by the learned Greaves,
we are informed that the solar year of the Kataians and Igurians com
mences on that day in which the sun attains the middle point of the con
stellation of Aquarius; and this we find from the Ephemeris fluctuates
between the third and the fifth of February, according to our bissextile.
With respect to their civil year, which must be that of which our author
speaks, we have a satisfactory account of it in the " Voyage de la Chine "
of P. Trigault, compiled from the writings of the eminent Matt. Ricci,
who says: " A chasque nouvelle an, qui commence a la nouvelle lune
qui precede ou suit prochainement le cinquiesme de Fevrier, duquel les
Chinois content le commencement du printemps, on envoye de chasque
province un ambassadeur pour visiter officieusement le roy (p. 60):
by which we should understand, the new moon that falls the nearest to
(either before or after) the time of the sun s reaching the middle point ol
Aquarius; and consequently the festival cannot be assigned to any parti
cular day of the European calendar.

2 The superstition of considering white, which is naturally the emblem
of purity, as having an influence in producing good fortune, has been

The White Feast ]

the beginning of the year, in the hope that, during the whole
course of it, nothing but what is fortunate may happen to them,
and that they may enjoy pleasure and comfort. Upon this
day the inhabitants of all the provinces and kingdoms who hold
lands or rights of jurisdiction under the grand khan, send him
valuable presents of gold, silver, and precious stones, together
with many pieces of white cloth, which they add, with the
intent that his majesty may experience throughout the year
uninterrupted felicity, and possess treasures adequate to all
his expenses. With the same view the nobles, princes, and all
ranks of the community, make reciprocal presents, at their
respective houses, of white articles; embracing each other
with demonstrations of joy and festivity, and saying (as we
ourselves are accustomed to do), " May good fortune attend
you through the coming year, and may everything you under
take succeed to your wish. l On this occasion great numbers
of beautiful white horses are presented to the grand khan; or
if not perfectly white, it is at least the prevailing colour. In
this country white horses are not uncommon.

It is moreover the custom in making presents to the grand
khan, for those who have it in their power to furnish nine
times nine of the article of which the present consists. Thus,

very prevalent throughout the world; as black, on the contrary, from
its connexion with impurity, darkness, and the grave, has been thought
the foreboder of ill-luck, and become the type of sadness. The Chinese,
however, whose customs, in many respects, run counter to those of
other nations, have judged proper to establish the former, instead of the
latter, as their mourning dress; but Kublai", although he adopted most
of the civil institutions of his new and more civilized subjects, did not,
and possibly could not, even if he had wished it, oblige his own people
to change their ancient superstitions. It accordingly appears that,
during his reign at least, and probably so long as his dynasty held the
throne, the festival of the new year was celebrated in white dresses, and
white horses were amongst the most acceptable presents to the emperor.
When the dynasty of the Ming, which was native Chinese, succeeded to
that of the Mungals, the use of white on this occasion was again pro
scribed.

1 " The first day of the new year, and a few succeeding days," Barrow
observes, " are the only holidays, properly speaking, that are observed
by the working part of the community. On these days the poorest
peasant makes a point of procuring new clothing for himself and his
family; they pay their visits to friends and relations, interchange civili
ties and compliments, make and receive presents; and the officers of
government, and the higher ranks, give feasts and entertainments."
(Trav. in China, p. 155.) " Their whole time," says L Abbe Gr osier, " is
employed in plays, diversions, and feasting. The shops are everywhere
shut; and all the people, dressed out in their richest attire, go to visit
their parents, friends, and patrons. Nothing in this respect can have a
greater resemblance to our visits on the first day of the new year."
Vol. ii. p. 323.

190 Travels of Marco Polo

for instance, if a province sends a present of horses, there are
nine times nine, or eighty-one head in the drove; so also of
gold, or of cloth, nine times nine pieces. 1 By such means his
majesty receives at this festival no fewer than a hundred
thousand horses. On this day it is that all his elephants,
amounting to five thousand, are exhibited in procession,
covered with housings of cloth, fancifully and richly worked
with gold and silk, in figures of birds and beasts. 2 Each of
these supports upon its shoulders two coffers filled with vessels
of plate and other apparatus for the use of the court. Then
follows a train of camels, in like manner laden with various
necessary articles of furniture. 3 When the whole are properly
arranged, they pass in review before his majesty, and form a
pleasing spectacle.

On the morning of the festival, before the tables are spread,
all the princes, the nobility of various ranks, 4 the cavaliers,

1 The superstitious ideas prevailing amongst the nations of Tartary
respecting the properties of this number are circumstantially detailed
by Strahlenberg, from whose well-known work the following passage,
which will be found abundantly sufficient to justify our author s asser
tion, is extracted: " I shall therefore proceed to relate," says this
observing traveller and laborious investigator, " what I myself have
observed in those North-eastern parts, as also what I have remarked in
other writers, who have treated of this part of the world, concerning
this subject, and particularly with regard to the number Nine, what
yet remains among the inhabitants of these parts. L Histoire du grand
Ghenghizcan, par M. Petis de la Croix, p. 79, informs us, that when Temu-
giri was elected Great Chan, and named Gherighiz-can, all the people
bowed their knees to him nine times, to wish him a prosperous continua
tion of his reign: and this is yet a custom with the Chinese-Tartarian
emperors, before whom ambassadors, when they are admitted to audi
ence, are obliged to make their obeisances kneeling, nine times at their
entrance, and just as often at their departure. The same ceremony is
yet in use with the Usbeck Tartars; for when a person has anything of
importance to ask of, or to treat with, their chan, he must not only offer
>a present, consisting of nine particular things or curiosities, but when
he approaches him to deliver it, must bow nine times; which ceremony
these Tartars call the Zagataian audience." -Introduction, p. 86.

2 As Kublai had subdued Ava, and other southern provinces, where
elephants are found in great number, and where they had been opposed
to his armies in battle, it is natural that he should be inclined to add
these powerful animals to his establishment, if not for military purposes,
at least for parade or as beasts of burden; and they were accordingly
delivered to him in tribute from the conquered princes. A few are kept
by the emperors of the dynasty now reigning, but, as it~ would seem,
merely for state.

3 It has already been mentioned that camels or dromedaries, especially
those with two bunches, are common in China.

4 Amongst the Chinese or Tartars there is no hereditary nobility, and
the term is here, and elsewhere, employed, in default of a better, to
express that class or rank of persons who hold the ? ca. offices of state,
and sore in Persia and Hindustan styled Amirs. The reader must be
well aware that in the modern intercourse of Europeans with China,

Court Ceremonial in China 1 9 1

astrologers, physicians, and falconers, with many others hold
ing public offices, the prefects of the people and of the lands, 1
together with the officers of the army, make their entry into
the grand hall, in front of the emperor. Those who cannot
find room within, stand on the outside of the building, in such
a situation as to be within sight of their sovereign. The as
semblage is marshalled in the following order. The first places
are assigned to the sons and grandsons of his majesty and all
the imperial family. Next to these are the provincial kings 5
and the nobility of the empire, according to their several
degrees, in regular succession. When all have been disposed
in the places appointed for them, a person of high dignity, or
as we should express it, a great prelate, 3 rises and says with a
loud voice: " Bow down and do reverence; when instantly
all bend their bodies until their foreheads touch the floor.
Again the prelate cries : " God bless our lord, and long preserve
him in the enjoyment of felicity." To which the people
answer: " God grant it." Once more the prelate says:
" May God increase the grandeur and prosperity of his empire;
may he preserve all those who are his subjects in the blessings
of peace and contentment; and in all their lands may abun
dance prevail." The people again reply: "God grant it."
They then make their prostrations four times. 4 This being

officers of all degrees, civil and military, from those who manage the
great concerns of the empire down to the persons stationed in boats to
prevent (or connive at) smuggling, are indiscriminately called mandarins ;
but of this title, although it might often be convenient in translating,
I do not avail myself, not only on account of the vagueness of its appli
cation, but because, as it was not known in our author s time, its intro
duction into his text would be a species of anachronism.

1 With a view not only to political security, but to the more ready
collection of the capitation and other taxes, the people were numbered,
and divided into classes, on a progressive decimal scale, from ten to ten
thousand, over each of which a responsible officer presided; and as the
revenue from the lands was collected in kind, officers, not unlike the
zemindars of the Moghul government in Hindustan, were appointed by
the emperor to watch over and transmit the produce to the royal granaries
near Pekin.

2 The Chinese title of vang, which the Portuguese render by the word
regulo, and the French Jesuits by roitclet and roi, was usually conferred
on the tributary princes throughout Tartary.

3 The term prelato, which has nothing corresponding to it in the other
versions, seems to be gratuitous on the part of Ramusio. In the Basle
edition the words are, " surgit unus in medio," and in the epitomes,

el se leva uno huomo in mezo." [In the.best Italian text, that pub
lished by Boni, the words are, " si leva un grande parlato."]

4 " Le maitre des ceremonies," says the younger De Guignes, " qui est
un des premiers mandarins du Ly-pou, ou tribunal des rites, s etant place
fires de la porte Ou-men, crie d une voix haute et percante: Mettez-
vons en ordre- tournez-vous; mettez-vous h genoux; frappez la tete

192 Travels of Marco Polo

done, the prelate advances to an altar, richly adorned, upon
which is placed a red tablet inscribed with the name of the
grand khan. Near to this stands a censer of burning incense,
with which the prelate, on the behalf of all who are assembled,
perfumes the tablet and the altar, in a reverential manner;
when every one present humbly prostrates himself before the
tablet. 1 This ceremony being concluded, they return to
their places, and then make the presentation of their respective
gifts; such as have been mentioned. When a display has
been made of these, and the grand khan has cast his eyes upon
them, the tables are prepared for the feast, and the company,
as well women as men, arrange themselves there in the manner
and order described in a former chapter. Upon the removal
of the victuals, the musicians and theatrical performers ex
hibit for the amusement of the court, as has been already
related. But on this occasion a lion is conducted into the
presence of his majesty, so tame, that it is taught to lay itself
down at his feet. 2 The sports being finished, every one re
turns to his own home.

centre terre; frappez encore; frappez de nouveau; levez-vous. On se
remet encore a genoux, et Ton recommence deux fois le salut; ainsi
1 hommage consiste a faire trois fois trois saluts. Apres le dernier, le
mandarin crie: Levez-vous; tournez-vous ; mettez-vous en ordre:
puts il se met a genoux lui-meme devant la porte, et dit: Seigneur, les
ceremonies sont terminees. " (Voy. a Peking, etc. torn. iii. p. 44.) An
account agreeing precisely in substance with the above, but more cir
cumstantial in the detail, will be found in the Nouv. Relat. of P. Magal-
hanes, p. 304. " The master of the ceremonies," says John Bell,
" brought back the ambassador, and then ordered all the company to
kneel, and make obeisance nine times to the emperor. At every third
time we stood up and kneeled again. Great pains were taken to avoid
this piece of homage, but without success. The master of the cere
monies stood by, and delivered his orders in the Tartar language, by
pronouncing the words morgu and boss ; the first meaning to bow, ancl
the other to stand; two words which I cannot soon forget" (Vol. ii.
p. 7.) All the editions of our author s work agree in stating that this
ceremony was repeated four times; whereas it is well known that the
repetitions are three and nine. Either his memory must have failed
him, or, which is more probable, the numeral figures of an early manu
script may have been mistaken by the copyists.

1 The ceremony of making prostrations before the empty throne, or
before a tablet on which is written the name of the emperor, appears
to belong rather to the festival of his nativity, than to that of the new
year.

2 Frequent mention is made of lions (which are not found either in
China or Chinese Tartary) being sent as presents from the western
potentates

Grand Khan s Hunting Establishment 193

CHAPTER XIII

OF THE QUANTITY OF GAME TAKEN AND SENT TO THE
COURT,, DURING THE WINTER MONTHS

AT the season when the grand khan resides in the capital of
Cathay, or during the months of December, January, and
February, at which time the cold is excessive, he gives orders
for general hunting parties to take place in all the countries
within forty stages of the court; and the governors of dis
tricts are required to send thither all sorts of game of the
larger kind, such as wild boars, stags, fallow deer, roebucks,
and bears, which are taken in the following manner: All
persons possessed of land in the province repair to the places
where these animals are to be found, and proceed to enclose
them within a circle, when they are killed, partly with dogs,
but chiefly by shooting them with arrows. 1 Such of them as
are intended for his majesty s use are first paunched for that
purpose, and then forwarded on carriages, in large quantities,
by those who reside within thirty stages of the capital. Those,
in fact, who are at the distance of forty stages, do not, on
account of the length of the journey, send the carcases, but
only the skins, some dressed and others raw, to be made use
of for the service of the army as his majesty may judge proper.

CHAPTER XIV

OF LEOPARDS AND LYNXES USED FOR HUNTING DEER OF LIONS
HABITUATED TO THE CHASE OF VARIOUS ANIMALS AND
OF EAGLES TAUGHT TO SEIZE WOLVES

THE grand khan has many leopards and lynxes kept for the
purpose of chasing deer, and also many lions, which are larger
than the Babylonian lions, have good skins and of a handsome
colour being streaked lengthways, with white, black, and red
stripes. They are active in seizing boars, wild oxen and asses,
bears, stags, roebucks, and other beasts that are the objects of
sport. It is an admirable sight, when the lion is let loose in
pursuit of the animal, to observe the savage eagerness and

1 This mode of hunting by surrounding the game within extensive
lines, gradually contracted, has been often described by travellers.

1 94 Travels of Marco Polo

speed with which he overtakes it. His majesty has them con
veyed for this purpose, in cages placed upon cars/ and along
with them is confined a little dog, with which they become
familiarised. The reason for thus shutting them up is, that
they would otherwise be so keen and furious at the sight of the
game that it would be impossible to keep them under the
necessary constraint. It is proper that they should be led in a
direction opposite to the wind, in order that they may not be
scented by the game, which would immediately run off, and
afford no chance of sport. His majesty has eagles also, which
are trained to stoop at wolves, and such is their size and
strength that none, however large, can escape from their talons.

CHAPTER XV

OF TWO BROTHERS WHO ARE PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE

CHASE TO THE GRAND KHAN

His majesty has in his service two persons, brothers both by
the father and mother, one of them named Bayan 2 and
the other Mingan, who are, what in the language of the Tartars
are called, chivichi? that is to say, masters of the chase,"

1 It has already been observed that the Moghuls of Hindustan keep
small leopards, to be employed in hunting. It would seem, however,
that the largest animals of this genus were also tamed for the imperial
sport. The former are described as being carried on horseback, behind
their keepers; but these in cages on a sort of car. By some other of
the old Italian writers they are termed " leonze domestice da cacciare."
It is evident from this description, as well as from the whole context,
that the beast here spoken of as the lion is in fact no other than the
tiger, and ought to have been so named; but whether the mistake is to
be attributed to our author himself, who might have forgotten some of
the terms of his native language, or to his first translators, we have not
the means of determining. The lion is known to be of a tawny colour,
nearly uniform, whereas the tiger is marked with the colours mentioned
above, if only for red we substitute a reddish yellow. It will not be
thought an improbable supposition that the confounding of these appella
tions may have proceeded from our author s intercourse with Persians
and other Mahometans, in his journey from China to Europe, as it is
well known to oriental scholars that with these people the same terms
are almost indiscriminately applied to both species of animal.

2 This may have been the person of the same name who so eminently
distinguished himself as commander-iri-chief of Kublai s armies, and
who is mentioned in a subsequent chapter as the conqueror of Southern
China. In the early Italian epitomes the names of the two brothers are
written Baxam and Mitigam.

3 Our vocabularies of the Mungal language are so imperfect, that
even if the words occurring in the text had been correctly written and
preserved, we might fail in our endeavours to identify them; but cor*

Grand Khan s Hunting Establishment 195

having charge of the hounds fleet and slow, and of the mastiffs.
Each of these has under his orders a body of ten thousand
chasseurs ; those under the one brother wearing a red uniform,
and those under the other, a sky-blue, whenever they are upon
duty. The dogs of different descriptions which accompany
them to the field are not fewer than five thousand. 1 The one
brother, with his division, takes the ground to the right hand
of the emperor, and the other to the left, with his division,
and each advances in regular order, until they have enclosed
a tract of country to the extent of a day s march. By this
means no beast can escape them. It is a beautiful and an ex
hilarating sight to watch the exertions of the huntsmen and the
sagacity of the dogs, when the emperor is within the circle,
engaged in the sport, and they are seen pursuing the stags,
bears, and other animals, in every direction. The two
brothers are under an engagement to furnish the court daily,
from the commencement of October to the end of March, with
a thousand pieces of game, quails being excepted; and also
with fish, of which as large a quantity as possible is to be sup
plied, estimating the fish that three men can eat at a meal as
equivalent to one piece of game.

CHAPTER XVI

OF THE GRAND KHAN S PROCEEDING TO THE CHASE, WITH HIS
GERFALCONS AND HAWKS OF HIS FALCONERS AND OF
HIS TENTS

WHEN his majesty has resided the usual time in the metro
polis, and leaves it in the month of March, he proceeds in a

rupted as they are by transcription, the attempt is vain. This, which
in Ramusio s version is civici, (or chivichi according to our orthography,)
is, in the Italian epitome of 1496, written civitri, in the earliest Latin
edition cynici, and in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts canici; from
which latter, if the spelling has not been perverted by the fancy of copy
ists, we might be led to suppose the word a derivative from the Italian
cane, a dog. [In the Latin text published by the French Geographical
Society, it is cinuchi.]

1 It is not common to find any mention of sporting dogs amongst the
Chinese or Chinese Tartars; but of their existence Bell furnishes us with
direct proof. After this entertainment," he says, " the Aleggada
(colao) carried us first to see his dogs, of which he had great variety. I
formerly observed that this gentleman was a great sportsman. He
took greater pleasure in talking of hounds than of politics; though at
the same time he had the character of a very able minister and an honest
man." Vol. ii. p. 22.

196

Travels of Marco Polo

north-easterly direction,, to within two days journey of the
ocean/ attended by full ten thousand falconers, who carry
with them a vast number of gerfalcons,, peregrine falcons, and
sakers, as well as many vultures, in order to pursue the game
along the banks of the river. 2 It must be understood that he
does not keep all this body of men together in one place, but
divides them into several parties of one or two hundred or
more, who follow the sport in various directions, and the
greater part of what they take is brought to his majesty. He
has likewise with him ten thousand men of those who are
termed taskaol* implying that their business is to be upon the
watch, and, who, for this purpose, are detached in small parties
of two or three to stations not far distant from each other, in
such a manner as to encompass a considerable tract of country.
Each of them is provided with a call and a hood, by which they
are enabled, when necessary, to call in and to secure the birds.
Upon the command being given for flying the hawks, those who
let them loose are not under the necessity of following them,
because the others, whose duty it is, look out so attentively
that the birds cannot direct their flight to any quarter where
they are not secured, or promptly assisted if there should be
occasion. Every bird belonging to his majesty, or to any of
his nobles, has a small silver label fastened to its leg, on which
is engraved the name of the owner and also the name of the
keeper. In consequence of this precaution, as soon as the
hawk is secured, it is immediately known to whom it belongs,

1 The simple construction of the words in Ramusio s text, " indi par-
tendosi il mese di Marzo, va verso Greco al mare oceano, il quale da li
e discosta per due giornate," would imply that he proceeded from the
capital to the ocean, which was distant from thence two days journey:
but either the author s sense must have been misunderstood, when he
meant to say that the route was to a country situated within two days
journey of the ocean, or there must be a gross error in the number of days,
which should rather be read, months ; for the whole context shows that
he is speaking of one of the emperor s distant progresses, through the
Manchu country, into the wilds of Eastern Tartary, and by no means of
a petty excursion to the shore of the Yellow Sea, which is only a few
stages from Pekin.

2 The river here spoken of may be either the Songari, which was the
limit of Kang-hi s expedition, or it may be the Usuri, to which latter I
incline, as it is the most eastern, and consequently the nearest to the
Dcean, of the great streams that unite with the Sagalien ula, and contri
bute to form the Amur, the boundary between the Russian and Chinese
dominions in that quarter.

3 The word, which in different versions takes the forms of toscaol,
toscaor, roscanor, roschaor, restaur, and, in the early Italian epitome,
tastori, I am unable to refer to any known language. In the Basle
edition it is translated " custodes; " by Ramusio, " huomini che stauno
alia custodia."

Precautions Relating to Lost Property 197

and restored accordingly. If it happens that, although the
name appears, the owner, not being personally known to the
finder, cannot be ascertained in the first instance, the bird is,
in that case, carried to an officer termed bulangazi* whose title
imports that he is the " guardian of unclaimed property/ 3 If
a horse, therefore, a sword, a bird, or any other article is found,
and it does not appear to whom it belongs, the finder carries it
directly to this officer, by whom it is received in charge and
carefully preserved. If, on the other hand, a person finds any
article that has been lost, and fails to carry it to the proper
depositary, he is accounted a thief. Those by whom any pro
perty has been lost make their application to this officer, by
whom it is restored to them. His situation is always in the
most elevated part of the camp, and distinguished by a par
ticular flag, in order that he may be the more readily found by
such as have occasion to apply to him. The effect of this
regulation is, that no articles are ultimately lost.

When his majesty makes his progress in this manner,
towards the shores of the ocean, many interesting occurrences
attend the sport, and it may truly be said that it is unrivalled
by any other amusement in the world. 2 On account of the
narrowness of the passes in some parts of the country where
the grand khan follows the chase, he is borne upon two ele
phants only, or sometimes a single one, being more con
venient than a greater number; but under other circumstances
he makes use of four, upon the backs of which is placed a
pavilion of wood, handsomely carved, 3 the inside being lined

1 All endeavours to ascertain by any probable etymology the true
orthography of this word, also, have been unsuccessful. It is written
in the different versions, bulangazi balangugi, bularguci, bugtami. and
bugrim. The first two may be presumed the more nearly correct,
because all the nouns in the Kalmuk-Mungalian language that denote
employments terminate in izchi, according to the German ot Strahlen-
berg, which is equivalent to the Italian zi or d. The establishment of
such an office does credit to the police of a Tartar camp.

a Our author, who, from this and many other expressions in the
course of his work, appears to have been passionately fond of the sports
of the field, must have recommended himself to the favour of his master
by this congenial taste.

3 It does not appear that any of the modern emperors of China have
made use of these grand animals for their personal conveyance. " He "
(the emperor Kang-hi), says Bell, " was seated, cross-legged, in an open
machine, carried by four men, with long poles rested on their
shoulders. Before him lay a fowling-piece, a bow, and sheaf of arrows.
This has been his hunting equipage for some years, since he left off riding;
but in his youth he went usually, every summer, several days journey
without the long wall, and carried with him all the princes his sons,
and many persons of distinction, to the number frequently of some

1 98 Travels of Marco Polo

with cloth of gold, and the outside covered with the skins of
lions, 1 a mode of conveyance which is rendered necessarv to

* <* *

him during his hunting excursions, in consequence of the gout,
with which he is troubled. In the pavilion he always carries
with him twelve of his best gerfalcons, with twelve officers,
from amongst his favourites, to bear him company and amuse
him. Those who are on horseback by his side give him notice
of the approach of cranes or other birds, upon which he raises
the curtain of the pavilion, and when he espies the game,
gives direction for letting fly the gerfalcons, which seize the
cranes and overpower them after a long struggle. The view
of this sport, as he lies upon his couch, affords extreme satis
faction to his majesty, as well as to the officers who attend him,
and to the horsemen by whom he is surrounded. After having
thus enjoyed the amusement for some hours, he repairs to a
place named Kakzarmodin, 2 w r here are pitched the pavilions
and tents of his sons, and also of the nobles, the life-guards, 3
and the falconers; exceeding ten thousand in number, and
making a handsome appearance. The tent of his majesty, in
which he gives his audiences, is so long and wide that under it
ten thousand soldiers might be drawn up, leaving room for the
superior officers and other persons of rank. 4 Its entrance
fronts the south, and on the eastern side it has another tent

thousands, in order to hunt in the woods and deserts, where he con
tinued for the space of two or three months." Travels, vol. ii. p. 76.

1 That is, of tigers or leopards, the skins of which are known to be in
common use for covering seats, and other similar purposes, amongst
persons of rank in China; as the animal itself abounds in Tartary, and
is the subject of royal sport; whereas all travellers agree in assuring us
that the lion is not a native of that region. See p. 194, note x .

2 This name of Kakzar-modin, which in the Latin manuscript of the
British Museum, and early Italian epitome, is written Cacia-mordin, has
some resemblance to Chakiri-mpndou, situated, according to the Jesuits
map, at the head of the Usuri river (which falls into the Amur), and
about midway between a considerable lake amongst the mountains and
the sea. [In the Latin text of the Societe de Geographic, it is written
Cacchiatriodum, and in the Italian of Boni, Tarcarmodu.]

3 The cavalieri here mentioned appear to be that military class which
Van Braam describes under the name of chiouais, and especially those of
the third order. The chiaoux of the Turkish or Ottoman court perform
duties analogous to those of the huissiers in France.

4 This number appears large, but it is no more than a body of one
hundred men in rank, and as many in file, who might also, by narrowing
their front, be drawn up under an awning of fifty yards by two hundred
in depth. The armies of the Tartars, as well as of the Persians, are
commonly reckoned by tomans, or brigades of ten thousand. It is re
corded of TimuT, that he was accustomed to estimate the strength of his
armies, not by individual numeration, but by the quantity of men who
could stand within a given space, which was occupied in succession, until
the whole were measured.

The Tent of the Grand Khan 199

connected with it, forming a capacious saloon, which the
emperor usually occupies, with a few of his nobility, and when
he thinks proper to speak to any other persons, they are intro
duced to him in that apartment. In the rear of this there is
a large and handsome chamber, where he sleeps; and there are
many other tents and apartments (for the different branches
of the household), but which are not immediately connected
with the great tent. These halls and chambers are all con
structed and fitted up in the following manner. Each of them
is supported by three pillars of wood, richly carved and gilt.
The tents are covered on the outside with the skins of lions,
streaked white, black, and red, and so well joined together that
neither wind nor rain can penetrate. Withinside they are
lined with the skins of ermines and sables, which are the most
costly of all furs; for the latter, if of a size to trim a dress, is
valued at two thousands besants of gold, provided it be perfect;
but if otherwise, only one thousand. It is esteemed by Tar
tars the queen of furs. 1 The animal, which in their language
is named rondes? is about the size of a polecat. With these
two kinds of skin, the halls as well as the sleeping-rooms are
handsomely fitted up in compartments, arranged with much
taste and skill. The tent-ropes, or cords by which they stretch
the tents, are all of silk. Near to the grand tent of his majesty
are situated those of his ladies, also very handsome and splen
did. They have in like manner their gerfalcons, their hawks,
and other birds and beasts, with which they partake in the
amusement. 3 The number of persons collected in these en
campments is quite incredible, and a spectator might conceive
himself to be in the midst of a populous city, so great is the
assemblage from every part of the empire. The grand khan
is attended on the occasion by the whole of his family and

1 The northern Chinese are curious and expensive in furs, and the
first of the sea-otter skins brought from the north-west coast of America
were purchased at extravagant prices, although not so high as the sum
mentioned in the text. The besant is supposed to have been equivalent
to the sequin, the ducat, and the Arabian dinar, or about nine shillings
of our money.

2 The word rondes (probably corrupted) is not to be traced in Strah-
lenberg s or other Mungalian vocabularies, but it evidently means the
sable. The animal is more particularly mentioned in book iii. chap.
xliv. [The early Italian text reads leroide, and the Latin, lenoida

3 It has been before observed that the Tartar customs impose no parti
cular restraint upon the women, who, on the contrary, in their camps,
are said to be the principal dealers in cattle and other articles.

2oo Travels of Marco Polo

household; that is to say, his physicians, astronomers, fal
coners, and every other description of officer. 1

In these parts of the country he remains until the first vigil
of our Easter, 2 during which period he never ceases to frequent
the lakes and rivers, where he takes storks, swans, herons, and
a variety of other birds. His people also being detached to
several different places, procure for him a large quantity of
game. In this manner, during the season of his diversion, he
enjoys himself to a degree that no person who is not an eye
witness can conceive; the excellence and the extent of the
sport being greater than it is possible to express. It is strictly
forbidden to every tradesman, mechanic, or husbandman
throughout his majesty s dominions, to keep a vulture, hawk ;
or any other bird used for the pursuit of game, or any sporting
dog; nor is a nobleman or cavalier to presume to chase beast
or bird in the neighbourhood of the place where his majesty
takes up his residence, (the distance being limited to five miles,
for example, on one side, ten on another, and perhaps fifteen in
a third direction,) unless his name be inscribed in a list kept
by the grand falconer, or he has a special privilege to that
effect. Beyond those limits it is permitted. There is an
order, however, which prohibits every person throughout all
the countries subject to the grand khan, whether prince,
nobleman, or peasant, from daring to kill hares, roebucks,
fallow deer, stags, or other animals of that kind, or any large
birds, between the months of March and October; to the
intent that they may increase and multiply ; and as the breach
of this order is attended with punishment, game of every
description increases prodigiously. When the usual time is
elapsed, his majesty returns to the capital by the road he went;
continuing his sport during the whole of the journey.

1 This was rather an extraordinary assemblage for a hunting expedi
tion; but, on similar occasions, Kang-hi was accustomed to have in his
suite some of the European missionaries who were astronomers and
mathematicians, and amused himself in observing with them the cul
mination of the stars, and in taking with a quadrant the altitude of
mountains, buildings, and even of a gigantic statue of the idol Fo. It
may be suspected, however, that Kublai s astronomers were no other
than astrologers, or shamans.

a The Kataian festivals being regulated, as ours are, by the new and
full moons before or after the sun s reaching certain fixed points of the
heavens, it is not surprising that the emperor s movements should seem
to be regulated by our calendar. In the diaries of Plan de Carpin and
Rubruquis, all the events of their journeys are noted according to the
feasts, fasts, or Saints days of their rubric, instead of the days of th?
month.

Kanbalu arid Its Suburbs 201

CHAPTER XVII

OF THE MULTITUDE OF PERSONS WHO CONTINUALLY RESORT TO
AND DEPART FROM THE CITY OF KANBALU AND OF THE
COMMERCE OF THE PLACE

UPON the return of the grand khan to his capital, he holds a
great and splendid court, which lasts three days, in the course
of which he gives feasts and otherwise entertains those by
whom he is surrounded. The amusements of these three days
are indeed admirable. The multitude of inhabitants, and the
number of houses in the city, as also in the suburbs without
the city (of which there are twelve, corresponding to the twelve
gates), is greater than the mind can comprehend. The suburbs
are even more populous than the city, and it is there that the
merchants and others whose business leads them to the capital,
and who, on account of its being the residence of the court,
resort thither in great numbers, take up their abode. Wher
ever, indeed, his majesty holds his court, thither these people
flock from all quarters, in pursuit of their several objects. In
the suburbs there are also as handsome houses and stately
buildings as in the city, with the exception only of the palace
of the grand khan. No corpse is suffered to be interred
within the precincts of the city ; 1 and those of the idolaters,
wiln whom it is customary to burn their dead, are carried
to the usual spot beyond the suburbs. 2 There likewise all
public executions take place. Women who live by prostituting
themselves for money dare not, unless it be secretly, to exercise
their profession in the city, but must confine themselves to the
suburbs, where, as has already been stated, there reside above
five-and- twenty thousand; nor is this number greater than is
necessary for the vast concourse of merchants and other
strangers, who, drawn thither by the court, are continually
arriving and departing. To this city everything that is most
rare and valuable in all parts of the world finds its way; and
more especially does this apply to India, which furnishes
precious stones, pearls, and various drugs and spices. From

1 " II est defendu aux Chinois," says Du Halde, " d enterrer leurs
morts dans 1 enceinte des villes, et dans les qu on habite." Tom. ii.
p. 125.

The general practice of the Chinese is to bury, and not to burn their
dead ; but it was otherwise with the Tartars, so long as they preserved
their original habits.

2O2 Travels of Marco Polo

the provinces of Cathay itself, as well as from the other pro
vinces of the empire, whatever there is of value is carried
thither, to supply the demands of those multitudes who are
induced to establish their residence in the vicinity of the court.
The quantity of merchandise sold there exceeds also the traffic
of any other place; for no fewer than a thousand carriages and
pack-horses, loaded with raw silk, make their daily entry; and
gold tissues and silks of various kinds are manufactured to an
immense extent. 1 In the vicinity of the capital are many
walled and other towns, whose inhabitants live chiefly by the
court, selling the articles which they produce in the markets
of the former, and procuring from thence in return such as
their own occasions require.

CHAPTER XVIII

OF THE KIND OF PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY THE GRAND KHAN,
AND MADE TO PASS CURRENT THROUGHOUT HIS DOMINIONS

IN this city of Kanbalu is the mint of the grand khan, who may
truly be said to possess the secret of the alchemists, as he has
the art of producing money by the following process. 2 He
causes the bark to be stripped from those mulberry-trees the
leaves of which are used for feeding silk-worms, and takes from
it that thin inner rind which lies between the coarser bark and
the wood of the tree. This being steeped, and afterwards
pounded in a mortar, until reduced to a pulp, is made into
paper, 3 resembling (in substance) that which is manufactured
from cotton, but quite black. When ready for use, he has it
cut into pieces of money of different sizes, nearly square, but

1 The prodigious quantity of silk produced in China is matter of
notoriety.

3 This is, perhaps, the only instance in which our author relaxes from
the general gravity of his style, and condescends to be witty. It is not
in the earlier texts.

* The accounts given by travellers of the vegetable and other sub
stances from which paper is manufactured in China vary considerably,
and it would appear that in different provinces different materials are
employed. The most common, and at the same time the least probable
assertion is, that it is made from the soft inner bark of the bamboo cane
(arundo bambos) ; but Du Halde informs us that it is not from the bark,
but from the substance, that paper is made. Du Halde quotes the
authority of a Chinese book, which relates that a certain ancient emperor
" fit faire un excellent papier du chanvre . . . que dans la province
de Fokien il se fait de tendres bambous ; (et) que dans les provinces du
nord, on y ernploie Vtcorce des muriers" P. 240.

Paper Money of the Tartar Princes 203

somewhat longer than they are wide. Of these, the smallest
pass for a denier tournois; the next size for a Venetian silver
groat; others for two, five, and ten groats; others for one, two,
three, and as far as ten besants of gold. 1 The coinage of this
paper money is authenticated with as much form and ceremony
as if it were actually of pure gold or silver; for to each note a
number of officers, specially appointed, not only subscribe
their names, but affix their signets also; and when this has
been regularly done by the whole of them, the principal officer,
deputed by his majesty, having dipped into vermilion the
royal seal committed to his custody, stamps with it the piece
of paper, so that the form of the seal tinged with the vermilion
remains impressed upon it, 2 by which it receives full authen
ticity as current money, and the act of counterfeiting it is
punished as a capital offence. 3 When thus coined in large
quantities, this paper currency is circulated in every part of
the grand khan s dominions; nor dares any person, at the
peril of his life, refuse to accept it in payment. All his subjects
receive it without hesitation, because, wherever their business
may call them, they can dispose of it again in the purchase of
merchandise they may have occasion for; such as pearls,
jewels, gold, or silver. With it, in short, every article may be
procured. 4

1 The grosso or gros is the drachma or dram, being the eighth part of
an ounce of silver, and the coin should, if of full weight, be equivalent
to about eightpence of our money. The picciolo tornese is the denier or
tenth part of the dram of silver, and consequently equal to four-fifths of
our penny. As the former is the tsien or mas, so the latter is the fen or
candorin, of the Chinese reckoning. Upon the same principle, ten grossi
or tsien constitute the leang or tael, which is valued at six shillings and
eightpence. It may be necessary to observe, that the French missionaries
apply the term of denier to the small Chinese coin of base metal, named
caxa by the Portuguese and cash by the English, of which a thousand are
equal to the tael. The besant, a gold coin of the Greek empire, is equiva
lent, as has already been observed, to the Venetian sequin.

a " La matiere dont on se sert," says De Guignes fils, " pour imprimer
avec les cachets, est composee de couleur rouge, melee avec de 1 huile;
on la tient renfermee dans un vase de porcelaine destine a cet usage, et
convert avec soin de peur qu elle ne se desseche." Voy. Peking, etc.
torn. ii. p. 230.

* " Ceux qui en feront de fausse," (says the inscription on paper money
issued by the Ming,) " auront la teste coupee." Du Halde, torn. ii. p.
1 68, planche.

4 According to P. Gaubil, paper money had already been current at
Pekin, under the grand khan Oktai, who himself only imitated what had
been practised by the dynasty that preceded the Yuen or family of
Jengiz-khan. C est cette annee (1234) qu on fit la monnoie de papier;
les billets s appelloient tchao. Le sceau du pou-tchin-se, ou tresorier-
g6neral de la province, etoit empreint dessus, et il y en avoit de tout
valeur. Cette monnoie avoit dej& couru sous les princes de Kin."

204 Travels of Marco Polo

Several times in the course of the year, large caravans of
merchants arrive with such articles as have just been men
tioned, together with gold tissues, which they lay before
the grand khan. He thereupon calls together twelve experi
enced and skilful persons, selected for this purpose, whom he
commands to examine the articles with great care, and to fix
the value at which they should be purchased. Upon the sum
at which they have been thus conscientiously appraised he
allows a reasonable profit, and immediately pays for them with
this paper; to which the owners can have no objection, because,
as has been observed, it answers the purpose of their own dis
bursements; and even though they should be inhabitants of
a country where this kind of money is not current, they invest
the amount in other articles of merchandise suited to their
own markets. 1 When any persons happen to be possessed of
paper money which from long use has become damaged, they
carry it to the mint, where, upon the payment of only three
per cent., they may receive fresh notes in exchange. 2 Should

(Observ. Chronol. p. 192.) By Du Halde we are informed that its estab
lishment was attempted also by the first prince of the dynasty that suc
ceeded the Mungals; and he has given an engraving of the billets, from
specimens still preserved by the Chinese with superstitious care, as relics
of a monarch who relieved them from a foreign yoke. When he adds,
" On 1 avoit employe avec aussi peu de succes sous la dynastie de Yuen/
the assertion may be doubted; because the success of KublaFs financial
measures, oppressive as they were, would not, if at all noticed in the
Chinese records, be impartially stated. It will be seen, on reference to
note *, p. 29, that an attempt was made by a Moghul ruler of Persia,
the grand-nephew of Kublai, to introduce a system of paper currency
in his dominions, at the period when the Polo family, returning from
China, resided at his court ; and that, upon a revolution which deprived
him of the throne, this measure constituted one of the criminal charges
against him. In Malcolm s History of Persia (vol. if p. 430), the reader
will find several curious facts and judicious observations connected with
this subject, which strongly tend to confirm the statements of our author;
and it there appears indubitably, from the native historians, that a
minister on the part of the emperor of China and Tartary had arrived
at the court of Persia about this period, and been consulted respecting
the currency.

1 In most states the issue of government paper is the resource of an
exhausted treasury; but Kublai s plan seems not to have been confined
to the substitution of paper for cash in the public disbursements, but to
have gone the length of endeavouring, by the operation of a forced cur
rency, to draw all the specie and bullion 01 the country into his exchequer;
for, although it is not expressly asserted, it is not improbable that the
merchandise which he monopolized in the manner described, and paid
for with his notes, was by him disposed of for gold and silver. In Siam,
and many other countries of the further East, the king is the principal
merchant of his dominions; and no individual can purchase a cargo,
until his majesty s agent has exercised the right of pre-emption.

z Our author seems to consider this charge of three per cent, for renew
ing the decayed notes as no more than what was reasonable, and to

The Council of Twelve 205

any be desirous of procuring gold or silver for the purposes of
manufacture, such as of drinking-cups, girdles,, or other articles
wrought of these metals, they in like manner apply at the mint,
and for their paper obtain the bullion they require. 1 All his
majesty s armies are paid with this currency, which is to them
of the same value as if it were gold or silver. Upon these
grounds, it may certainly be affirmed that the grand khan has
a more extensive command of treasure than any other sovereign
in the universe.

CHAPTER XIX

OF THE COUNCIL OF TWELVE GREAT OFFICERS APPOINTED FOR
THE AFFAIRS OF THE ARMY, AND OF TWELVE OTHERS, FOR
THE GENERAL CONCERNS OF THE EMPIRE

THE grand khan selects twelve noblemen of high rank and
consequence (as has been mentioned), whose duty it is to
decide upon every point respecting the army; such as the
removal of troops from one station to another; the change of
officers commanding them; the employment of a force where
it may be judged necessary; and the numbers which it may be
proper to detach upon any particular service, according to the
degree of its importance. Besides these objects, it is their
business to distinguish between officers who have given proofs
of valour in combat, and those who have shown themselves
base and cowardly, in order to advance the former and to de
grade the latter. Thus, if the commander of a thousand has
been found to conduct himself in an unbecoming manner, this
tribunal, considering him to be unworthy of the rank he held,

explain the whole system of extortion with complacency, as affording
a proof of the consummate policy and grand resources of his master.
It appears that the dynasty of the Ming was less exorbitant, and de
manded only two per cent. Josaphat Barbaro, when he was at Asof in
the Crimea, about the year 1450, was informed by an intelligent Tartar,
who had been on an embassy to Cataio or China, that, " in quel luogo si
spende moneta di carta; laquale ogni anno e mutata con nuova stampa
et la moneta vecchia in capo delP anno si porta alia zecca, ove & chi
laporta e data altrettanta della nuova e bella; pagando tutta via due
per cento di moneta d argento buona, et la moneta vecchia si butta nel
fuoco." Viaggio alia Persia, etc. p. 44, i2mo.

1 This scheme of finance having the tendency of depriving the manu
factures in gold and silver of the materials of their trade, which were
drawn out of the market by its vortex, a remedy became necessary for
so serious an inconvenience, and the demands were accordingly supplied
from the treasurv.

206 Travels of Marco Polo

reduce him to the command of an hundred men; or, on the
contrary, if he has displayed such qualities as give claim to
promotion, they appoint him commander of ten thousand.
All this, however, is done with the knowledge and subject to
the approval of his majesty, to whom they report their opinion
of the officer s merit or demerit, and who, upon confirming
their decision, grants to him who is promoted to the command
of ten thousand men (for example) the tablet or warrant
belonging to his rank, as before described; and also confers on
him large presents, in order to excite others to merit the same
rewards.

The tribunal composed of these twelve nobles is named
Thai, denoting a supreme court, as being responsible to no
other than the sovereign. 1 Besides this, there is another
tribunal, likewise of twelve nobles, appointed for the super
intendence of everything that respects the government of the
thirty-four provinces of the empire. These have in Kanbalu
a large and handsome palace or court, containing many
chambers and halls. For the business of each province there
is a presiding law-officer, together with several clerks, who
have their respective apartments in the court, and there
transact whatever business is necessary to be done for the
province to which they belong, according to the directions
they receive from the tribunal of twelve. These have authority
to make choice of persons for the governments of the several
provinces, whose names are presented to the grand khan for
confirmation of their appointments and delivery of the tablets
of gold or of silver appropriated to their ranks. They have also
the superintendence of every matter that regards the collec
tion of the revenue, both from land and customs, together with
its disposal, and have the control of every other department of
the state; with the exception only of what relates to the army. 2

* Thai is evidently the tay (No. 1121) of De Guignes Chinese Diction
ary, which he renders by " eminens, altus." The usual Chinese term
for this tribunal denotes its military functions, but the name in the text
is expressly said to refer to its supremacy as a court, which the word
thai or tay directly implies.

8 This grand tribunal for the civil administration of the empire appears
to have united in Kublai s time the objects of two of those six which now
constitute the official government. " La fonction de la premiere de ces
cours souveraines qui s appellent Lij pou, est de fournir des mandarins
pour toutes les provinces de 1 empire, de veiller sur leur conduite, d exam-
iner leurs bonnes ou mauvaises qualitez, d en rendre compte a 1 empereur,
etc," " La seconde cour souveraine, appellee hou pott, c est-a-dire,
grand tresorier du roy, a la surintendance des finances, et a le soin du
domaine, des tresors,de la depense, et des revenus de 1 empereur, etc.

The Imperial Roads and Stations 207

This tribunal is named Sing, implying that it is a second high
court, 1 and, like the other, responsible only to the grand khan.
But the former tribunal, named Thai, which has the adminis
tration of military affairs, is regarded as superior in rank and
dignity to the latter. 2

CHAPTER XX

OF THE PLACES ESTABLISHED ON ALL THE GREAT ROADS FOR
SUPPLYING POST-HORSES OF THE COURIERS ON FOOT-
AND OF THE MODE IN WHICH THE EXPENSE IS DEFRAYED

FROM the city of Kanbalu there are many roads leading to
the different provinces, and upon each of these, that is to say,
upon every great high road, at the distance of twenty-five or
thirty miles, accordingly as the towns happen to be situated,
there are stations, with houses of accommodation for travellers,
called yamb or post-houses. 3 These are large and handsome

Pour Taider dans ce prodigieux detail, elle a quatorze tribunaux subal-
ternes pour les affaires des quatorze provinces dont est compose 1 empire;
car la province de Pe-tche-li etant la province de la cour, . . . jouit en
beaucoup de choses des prerogatives de la cour et de la maison de 1 em-
pereur." (Du Halde, torn. ii. p. 23.) Besides these fifteen provinces
of the modern empire (or sixteen including the island of Hainan), Kublaii
had under his government all the kingdoms possessed by his family
before their conquest of China. In this sense it is that pur author speaks
of thirty- four provinces as under the jurisdiction of this tribunal.

1 The Chinese terms that present themselves as corresponding in sound
to this of singh, and having at the same time an appropriate signification,
are sing (No. 2938 of the Dictionary), which is rendered by " advertere,
cognoscere," and sing (6606), by " examinare, considerare; both of
which, if they can be said to differ in sense, are completely applicable to
the nature of a high court of justice; more so, perhaps, than tsing (3947),
44 claritas, splendor," or tsing (7698), rectum, bonum, perfectum."
That it should have received its appellation, according to the phrase in
Ramusio s text, from the circumstance of its being second to any other
tribunal, is not probable in itself, nor justified by any analogy of sound.

* In modern times, on the contrary, precedence is given to the civil
departments, and the Ping-pu or war tribunal ranks only as fourth of
the six high courts. That it should have been otherwise under the
government of a monarch who held the empire of China by the sword,
and that in his estimation the department of the army should be para
mount to all others, is what might be expected.

8 This word, which in Ramusio s text is printed latnb, we find to be
ianli in the Basle edition, ianbi in the older Latin, and iamb, or, as we
should write it, yamb, in the B.M. manuscript; and there explained by
the term of " mansiones equorum." It is evident therefore that the /
for i, in the Italian, is a mistake of transcription, and we may conclude
the word to be the Persian yam or idm which Meninski translates, " sta-
tionarius, veredus seu veredarius equus," but which, in the journal ol

2o8 Travels of Marco Polo

buildings, having several well-furnished apartments, hung
with silk, and provided with everything suitable to persons
of rank. Even kings may be lodged at these stations in a
becoming manner, 1 as every article required may be obtained
from the towns and strong places in the vicinity; and for
some of them the court makes regular provision. At each
station four hundred good horses are kept in constant readi
ness, in order that all messengers going and coming upon the
business of the grand khan, and all ambassadors, may have
relays, and, leaving their jaded horses, be supplied with fresh
ones. 2 Even in mountainous districts, remote from the great
roads, where there were no villages, and the towns are far
distant from each other, his majesty has equally caused build
ings of the same kind to be erected, furnished with every
thing necessary, and provided with the usual establishment of
horses. He sends people to dwell upon the spot, in order to
cultivate the land, and attend to the service of the post; by
which means large villages are formed. In consequence of
these regulations, ambassadors to the court, and the royal
messengers, go and return through every province and king
dom of the empire with the greatest convenience and facility; 3

Shah Rokh s ambassadors, is made to denote the inn or post-house (agree
ably to our author s use of it), and not the post-horses. Meninski
remarks that it belongs to the dialect spoken in Korasmia, which at the
period of its conquest by Jengiz-khan and his sons was amongst the most
civilized countries of Asia, and the most likely to have had establish
ments of that nature. By the Chinese their post-houses are termed
tchan or chan, and twenty-five or thirty miles is said to be their distance
from each other. The Persian marhileh and manzil equally signify,
" a stage or halting-place, after a day s journey (of about thirty miles)."
The aradfjibs, statio, mansio, of the Greeks, was of the same nature.

1 By kings are here meant persons of that rank which the Chinese
term Vang, and the Portuguese Regulo. They may be compared to the
Princes of the German empire, or to the Hindu Rajas under the Moghul
government.

2 To those who form their judgment of the ancient establishments of
the Chinese empire from modern descriptions, this number of horses at
each station, or the end of each day s ordinary journey, may appear im
probable; but the assertion is justified by the authority of the same
journal that has so often served to throw light upon our author s rela
tions, although written subsequently to his time by about a century

and a half.

3 By ambassadors, in Chinese history and accounts of China, we are
to understand not only the representatives of foreign princes, to whom
we confine the term, but every petty vassal of the empire, or deputy of
such vassal, who repairs to the court, invested with a public character.
Those of the first mentioned class were in the practice of taking under
their protection, as a part of their suite, large bodies of traders, who by that
means had an opportunity of introducing their goods into the country,
in contravention cf the established regulations, but obviously with the
connivance of the governors of frontier towns, and perhaps of the court

Great Population of the Country 209

in all which the grand khan exhibits a superiority over every
other emperor, king, or human being. In his dominions no
fewer than two hundred thousand horses are thus employed
in the department of the post, and ten thousand buildings,
with suitable furniture, are kept up. 1 It is indeed so wonder
ful a system, and so effective in its operation, as it is scarcely
possible to describe. If it be questioned how the population
of the country can supply sufficient numbers for these duties,
and by what means they can be victualled, we may answer,
that all the idolaters, and likewise the Saracens, keep six,
eight, or ten women, according to their circumstances, by
whom they have a prodigious number of children; 2 some of
them as many as thirty sons capable of following their fathers
in arms; whereas with us a man has only one wife, and even
although she should prove barren, he is obliged to pass his life
with her, and is by that means deprived of the chance of raising
a family. Hence it is that our population is so much inferioi
to theirs. With regard to food, there is no deficiency of it,
for these people, especially the Tartars, Cathaians, and inhabi
tants of the province of Manji (or Southern China), subsist, for
the most part, upon rice, panicum, and millet; which three
grains yield, in their soil, an hundred measures for one. 3
Wheat, indeed, does not yield a similar increase, and bread not
being in use with them, it is eaten only in the form of vermi
celli or of pastry. The former grains they boil in milk or stew
with their meat. With them no spot of earth is suffered to
lie idle, that can possibly be cultivated; and their cattle of
different kinds multiply exceedingly, insomuch that when
they take the field, there is scarcely an individual that does

itself. This is avowed by Shah Rokh s ambassadors, and particularly
described by Benedict Goez, who himself travelled in the capacity of a
merchant.

1 An inconsistency in the numbers, not easy to reconcile, presents
itself in this place; for if by ten thousand buildings are meant so many
post-houses, the total number of horses, instead of being two hundred
thousand, should amount to four millions. It is probable that a cipher
should be cut off from the former, and that, for ten, we should read one
thousand, which would bring the error within moderate bounds; or, it
may be intended to include in that number the stations, at short inter
vals, for couriers on foot.

* The modern accounts of Chinese polygamy or concubinage lead us
to suppose that it is not common amongst the lower classes of society.

1 In Sumatra the rate of produce of up-land rice is reckoned at eighty,
and of low-land, at an hundred and twenty for one. This increase, so
disproportionate to what is known in Europe, I have ventured to attri
bute rather to the saving of grain in the mode of sowing, than to any
superior fertility of soil. See Hist, of Sumatra, third edit. p. 77. See
also Voy. a Peking, etc. par De Guignes fils, toro, iii. p. 332.

2 1 o Travels of Marco Polo

not carry with him six, eight, or more horses, for his own
personal use. From all this may be seen the causes of so
large a population, and the circumstances that enable them
to provide so abundantly for their subsistence.

In the intermediate space between the post-houses, there
are small villages settled at the distance of every three miles,
which may contain, one with another, about forty cottages.
In these are stationed the foot messengers, likewise employed
in the service of his majesty. 1 They wear girdles round their
waists, to which several small bells are attached, in order
that their coming may be perceived at a distance; and as
they run only three miles, that is, from one of these foot-
stations to another next adjoining, the noise serves to give
notice of their approach, and preparation is accordingly made
by a fresh courier to proceed with the packet instantly upon
the arrival of the former. 2 Thus it is so expeditiously con
veyed from station to station, that in the course of two days
and two nights his majesty receives distant intelligence that
in the ordinary mode could not be obtained in less than ten
days ; 3 and it often happens that in the fruit season, what
is gathered in the morning at Kanbalu is conveyed to the
grand khan, at Shan-du, by the evening of the following day;
although the distance is generally considered as ten days
journey. At each of these three-mile stations there is a clerk,
whose business it is to note the day and hour at which the
one courier arrives and the other departs; which is likewise
done at all the post-houses. Besides this, officers are directed
to pay monthly visits to every station, in order to examine
into the management of them, and to punish those couriers

1 " Upon the road," says Bell, " we met with many turrets, called
post-houses, erected at certain distances from one another. . . . These
places are guarded by a few soldiers, who run a- foot, from one post to
another, with great speed, carrying letters or despatches that concern
the emperor. . . . The distance of one post-house from another is
usually five Chinese li or miles. ... 1 compute five of their miles to be
about two and a half English." Vol. i. p. 340.

2 The use of bells for this purpose would seem, from what is stated by
De Guignes, to be now confined to the messengers on horseback. (Tom.
ii. p. 223.) It is likely, however, that the foot-messengers have some
similar mode of making known their approach.

3 An active man may, with perfect ease, run three miles at the rate of
eight miles in the hour, and consequently one hundred and ninety-two
miles might be performed by successive couriers in twenty- four hours,
or nearly four hundred miles in two days and nights: but if by the
" ordinary mode " is to be understood ten stages of thirty miles, it is
only necessary that three hundred miles should be performed in that
time, which is at the rate of six miles in the hour.

Service of the Public Roads 211

who have neglected to use proper diligence. All these couriers
are not only exempt from the (capitation) tax, but also receive
from his majesty good allowances. The horses employed in
this service are not attended with any (direct) expense; the
cities, towns, and villages in the neighbourhood being obliged
to furnish, and also to maintain them. By his majesty s
command the governors of the cities cause examination to be
made by well informed persons, as to the number of horses
the inhabitants, individually, are capable of supplying. The
same is done with respect to the towns and villages; and ac
cording to their means the requisition is enforced; those on
each side of the station contributing their due proportion.
The charge of the maintenance of the horses is afterwards
deducted by the cities out of the revenue payable to the grand
khan; inasmuch as the sum for which each inhabitant would
be liable is commuted for an equivalent of horses or share of
horses, which he maintains at the nearest adjoining station. 1

It must be understood, however, that of the four hundred
horses the whole are not constantly on service at the station,
but only two hundred, which are kept there for the space of
a month, during which period the other half are at pasture;
and at the beginning of the month, these in their turn take
the duty, whilst the former have time to recover their flesh;
each alternately relieving the other. Where it happens that
there is a river or a lake which the couriers on foot, or the
horsemen, are under the necessity of passing, the neighbour
ing cities are obliged to keep three or four boats in continual
readiness for that purpose; and where there is a desert of
several days journey, that does not admit of any habitation,
the city on its borders is obliged to furnish horses to such
persons as ambassadors to and from the court, that they may
be enabled to pass the desert, and also to supply provisions
to them and their suite; but cities so circumstanced have a
remuneration from his majesty. Where the post stations lie
at a distance from the great road, the horses are partly those
of his majesty, and are only in part furnished by the cities
and towns of the district.

When it is necessary that the messengers should proceed

1 It is not easy to comprehend to whom it is meant that this establish
ment was not attended with expense. If deducted from the amount of
taxes to which the inhabitants were otherwise liable, it was ultimately
a charge upon the revenue of the monarch. The whole is far from being
clear, but the probable meaning is, that it was without expense, ulti
mately, to the individuals who performed the duty.

2 1 2 Travels of Marco Polo

with extraordinary despatch, as in the cases of giving informa
tion of disturbance in any part of the country, the rebellion
of a chief, or other important matter, they ride two hundred,
or sometimes two hundred and fifty miles in the course of a
day. -On such occasions they carry with them the tablet of
the gerfalcon as a signal of the urgency of their business and
the necessity for despatch. .And when there are two mes
sengers, they take their departure together from the same place,
mounted upon good fleet horses; and they gird their bodies
tight, bind a cloth round their heads, and push their horses
to the greatest speed. They continue thus till they come to
the next post-house, at twenty-five miles distant, 1 where they
find two other horses, fresh and in a state for work; they
spring upon them without taking any repose, and changing
in the same manner at every stage, until the day closes, they
perform a journey of two hundred and fifty miles. In cases
of great emergency they continue their course during the
night, and if there should be no moon, they are accompanied
to the next station by persons on foot, who run before them
with lights; when of course they do not make the same ex
pedition as in the day-time, the light-bearers not being able
to exceed a certain pace. Messengers qualified to undergo this
extraordinary degree of fatigue are held in high estimation.
Now we will leave this subject, and I will tell you of a great
act of benevolence which the grand khan performs twice
a-year.

CHAPTER XXI

OF THE RELIEF AFFORDED BY THE GRAND KHAN TO ALL THE
PROVINCES OF HIS EMPIRE, IN TIMES OF DEARTH OR
MORTALITY OF CATTLE

THE grand khan sends every year his commissioners to ascer
tain whether any of his subjects have suffered in their crops of
corn from unfavourable weather, from storms of wind or
violent rains, or by locusts, worms, or any other plague; and
in such cases he not only refrains from exacting the usual
tribute of that year, but furnishes them from his granaries
with so much corn as is necessary for their subsistence, as well
as for sowing their land. With this view, in times of great

1 [In other MSS. it is thirty-five miles.]

Benevolence of the Grand Khan 2 1 3

plenty, he causes large purchases to be made of such kinds of
grain as are most serviceable to them, which is stored in
granaries provided for the purpose in the several provinces,
and managed with such care as to ensure its keeping for three
or four years without damage. 1 It is his command, that these
granaries be always kept full, in order to provide against times
of scarcity; and when, in such seasons, he disposes of the grain
for money, he requires for four measures no more than the
purchaser would pay for one measure in the market. In like
manner where there has been a mortality of cattle in any dis
trict, he makes good the loss to the sufferers from those belong
ing to himself, which he has received as his tenth of produce in
other provinces. All his thoughts, indeed, are directed to the
important object of assisting the people whom he governs,
that they may be enabled to live by their labour and improve
their substance. 2 We must not omit to notice a peculiarity of
the grand khan, that where an accident has happened by
lightning to any herd of cattle, flock of sheep, or other domestic
animals, whether the property of one or more persons, and
however large the herd may be, he does not demand the tenth
of the increase of such cattle during three years; and so also
if a ship laden with merchandise has been struck by lightning,
he does not collect from her any custom or share of her cargo,
considering the accident as an ill omen. God. he says, has
shown himself to be displeased with the owner of the goods,
and he is unwilling that property bearing the mark of divine
wrath should enter his treasury. 3

1 " In such times (of scarcity) the emperor of China," says Staunton,
. . . " orders the granaries to be opened; he remits the taxes to those
who are visited by misfortunes ; he affords assistance to enable them to
retrieve their affairs." (Vol. ii. p. 89.) " In China," says Barrow,
" there are no great farmers who store their grain to throw into the mar
ket hi seasons of scarcity. In such seasons the only resource is that of
the government opening its magazines, and restoring to the people that
portion of their crop which it had demanded from them as the price
of its protection." The same circumstance is noticed by other travellers.

2 The edicts of the Chinese emperors, even of such as were kept by
their eunuchs and other favourites in profound ignorance of the affairs
of their empire, are filled with sentiments expressive of the most tender
and anxious concern for the welfare of their people, whom they term
their children. In Kubla i s actions there was probably no affectation
of philanthropy; but from his general character it may be suspected
that a regard for his own interest was the motive that actuated his bene
volence to his Chinese subjects, of whose loyalty he always showed him
self suspicious.

8 No direct proof of the existence of this superstition in China has
presented itself. That thunder and lightning are regarded with feelings
of extraordinary terror, is evident from the frightful representations of
the deity who presides over, and is supposed to wield this engine of
divine wrath.

214 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXII

OF THE TREES WHICH HE CAUSES TO BE PLANTED AT THE SIDES
OF THE ROADS, AND OF THE ORDER IN WHICH THEY ARE
KEPT

THERE is another regulation adopted by the grand khan,
equally ornamental and useful. At both sides of the public
roads he causes trees to be planted, of a kind that become
large and tall, and being only two paces asunder, they serve
(besides the advantage of their shade in summer) to point out
the road (when the ground is covered with snow); which is of
great assistance and affords much comfort to travellers. 1 This
is done along all the high roads, where the nature of the soil
admits of plantation; but when the way lies through sandy
deserts or over rocky mountains, where it is impossible to have
trees, he orders stones to be placed and columns to be erected,
as marks for guidance. He also appoints officers of rank,
whose duty it is to see that all these are properly arranged and
the roads constantly kept in good order. Besides the motives
that have been assigned for these plantations, it may be added
that the grand khan is the more disposed to make them, from
the circumstance of his diviners and astrologers having declared
that those who plant trees are rewarded with long life.

CHAPTER XXIII

OF THE KIND OF WINE MADE IN THE PROVINCE OF CATHAY AND
OF THE STONES USED THERE FOR BURNING IN THE MANNER
OF CHARCOAL

THE greater part of the inhabitants of the province of Cathay
drink a sort of wine made from rice mixed with a variety of

1 " II y a de certaines provinces," says Du Halde, " ou les grandes
chemins sont comme autant de grandes allees, bordees d arbres fort
hauts." (Tom. ii. p. 52.) De Guignes describes the high roads of the
provinces through which he travelled, as generally planted with trees.
(Tom. ii. pp. 215, 216.) The paces by which the distance of the trees
is estimated by our author, must be understood as geometric or Roman
paces of five feet; and even on that scale the interval is too small. It
is not improbable that he may in this instance, as well as in other parts
of the work, have expressed himself in the measures of the country,
which are rendered by Italian terms not strictly corresponding; or the
passage may have been corrupted. The explanatory words between
brackets are added in the translation.

Stones Used for Burning 215

spices and drugs. This beverage, or wine as it may be termed^
is so good and well flavoured that they do not wish for better.
It is clear, bright, and pleasant to the taste, and being (made)
very hot, has the quality of inebriating sooner than any other.
Throughout this province there is found a sort of black
stone, which they dig out of the mountains, where it runs in
veins. When lighted, it burns like charcoal, and retains the
fire much better than wood; insomuch that it may be pre
served during the night, and in the morning be found still burn
ing. These stones do not flame, excepting a little when first
lighted, but during their ignition give out a considerable heat.
It is true there is no scarcity of wood in the country, but the
multitude of inhabitants is so immense, and their stoves and
baths, which they are continually heating, so numerous, that
the quantity could not supply the demand; for there is no
person who does not frequent the warm bath at least three
times in the week, and during the winter daily, if it is in their
power. Every man of rank or wealth has one in his house for
his own use; and the stock of wood must soon prove inadequate
to such consumption; whereas these stories may be had in the
greatest abundance, and at a cheap rate. 1

CHAPTER XXIV

OF THE GREAT AND ADMIRABLE LIBERALITY EXERCISED BY THE
GRAND KHAN TOWARDS THE POOR OF KANBALU, AND OTHER
PERSONS WHO APPLY FOR RELIEF AT HIS COURT

IT has been already stated that the grand khan distributes
large quantities of grain to his subjects (in the provinces). We

1 This circumstantial account of the use made by the Chinese of pit
or fossil coal, at a period when its properties were so little known in
Europe, will deservedly be thought an interesting record of the fact, as
well as a proof of undoubted genuineness and originality on the part of
our author. " Les mines de charbon de pierre sont en si grande quantite
dans les provinces," says Du Halde, " qu il n y a apparemment aucun
royaume au monde, ou il y en ait tant, et de si abondantes. II s en
trouve sans nombre dans les montagnes des provinces de Chen-si, de
Chan-si, et de Pe-che-li: aussi s en sert-on pour tous les fourneaux des
ouvriers, dans les cuisines de toutes les maisons, et dans les hypocaustes
des chambres qu on allume tout 1 hyver. Sans un pareil secours, ces
peuples auroient peine a vivre dans des pays si froids, ou le bois de
chauffage est rare, et par consequent tres-cher." (Tom. i. p. 29.)

Stoves," says Staunton, " are common in large buildings. They are
fed from without with fossil coal, found plentifully in the neighbourhood."

Vol. ii. p. 338.

216 Travels of Marco Polo

shall now speak of his great charity to and provident care of
the poor in the city of Kanbalu. Upon his being apprised of
any respectable family, that had lived in easy circumstances,
being by misfortunes reduced to poverty, or who, in conse
quence of infirmities, are unable to work for their living or to
raise a supply of any kind of grain : to a family in that situa
tion he gives what is necessary for their year s consumption,
and at the customary period they present themselves before
the officers who manage the department of his majesty s
expenses and who reside in a palace where that business is
transacted, to whom they deliver a statement in writing of the
quantity furnished to them in the preceding year, according
to which they receive also for the present. He provides in
like manner for their clothing, which he has the means of doing
from his tenths of wool, silk, and hemp. These materials he
has woven into the different sorts of cloth, in a house erected
for that purpose, where every artisan is obliged to work one
day in the week for his majesty s service. Garments made of
stuffs thus manufactured he orders to be given to the poor
families above described, as they are wanted for their winter
and their summer dresses. He also has clothing prepared for
his armies, and in every city has a quantity of woollen cloth
woven, which is paid for from the amount of the tenths levied
at the place. 1

It should be known that the Tartars, when they followed
their original customs, and had not yet adopted the religion of
the idolaters, were not in the practice of bestowing alms, and
when a necessitous man applied to them, they drove him away
with injurious expressions, saying, " Begone with your com
plaint of a bad season which God has sent you; had he loved
you, as it appears he loves me, you would have prospered as I
do." But since the wise men of the idolaters, and especially
the baksis, already mentioned, have represented to his majesty
that providing for the poor is a good work and highly accept
able to their deities, he has relieved their wants in the manner
stated, and at his court none are denied food who come to ask
it. Not a day passes in which there are not distributed, by the
regular officers, twenty thousand vessels of rice, millet, and

1 At the present day the manufacture of woollen cloth or stuffs in
China is very inconsiderable, but it may have been affected in the course
of several centuries by the importations from Europe, which are known
to have progressively increased. For its existence in the seventeenth
century we have the authority of the missionaries.

The Astrologers of Kanbalu 2 1 7

panlcum. 1 By reason of this admirable and astonishing
liberality which the grand khan exercises towards the poor.
the people all adore him as a divinity. 2

CHAPTER XXV

OF THE ASTROLOGERS OF THE CITY OF KANBALU

THERE are in the city of Kanbalu, amongst Christians,
Saracens, and Cathaians, about five thousand astrologers and
prognosticate^, 3 for whose food and clothing the grand khan
provides in the same manner as he does for the poor families
above mentioned, and who are in the constant exercise of
their art. They have their astrolabes, upon which are de
scribed the planetary signs, the hours (at which they pass the
meridian), and their several aspects for the whole year. The
astrologers (or almanac-makers) of each distinct sect annually
proceed to the examination of their respective tables, in order
to ascertain from thence the course of the heavenly bodies,
and their relative positions for every lunation. They dis
cover therein what the state of the weather shall be, from the
paths and configurations of the planets in the different signs,
and thence foretell the peculiar phenomena of each month:
that in such a month, for instance, there shall be thunder and
storms; in such another, earthquakes; in another, strokes of
lightning and violent rains; in another, diseases, mortality,
wars, discords, conspiracies. As they find the matter in their
astrolabes, so they declare it will come to pass; adding, how
ever, that God, according to his good pleasure, may do more
or less than they have set down. They write their predic
tions for the year upon certain small squares, which are called
takuini, and these they sell, for a groat apiece, to all persons
who are desirous of peeping into futurity. Those whose pre-

1 Purchas translates scudelle by " crowns " (ecus), and supposes thai
grain to the amount of twenty thousand of that coin was distributed
daily; but the dictionaries tell us that the Italianscw^Wais the French
ecuelle, a pipkin or porringer; and this meaning is the more simple and
natural of the two. [Instead of this, the early Latin and French texts
published by the French Geographical Society, say simply that thirty
thousand people were thus fed at court, and the Italian text of Boni
makes the number of persons to be three hundred thousand.]

a " He appears to his subjects," says Staunton, " as standing almost
in the place of Providence in their favour." -Vol. ii. p. 90.

8 To account for this extraordinary number of astrologers, we must
suppose that the priests of every description were adepts in the occult art.

21 8 Travels of Marco Polo

dictions are found to be the more generally correct are esteemed
the most perfect masters of their art, and are consequently the
most honoured. 1 When any person forms the design of exe
cuting some great work, of performing a distant journey in the
way of commerce, or of commencing any other undertaking,
and is desirous of knowing what success may be likely to attend
it, he has recourse to one of these astrologers, and, informing
him that he is about to proceed on such an expedition, inquires
in what disposition the heavens appear to be at the time.
The latter thereupon tells him, that before he can answer, it is
necessary he should be informed of the year, the month, and
the hour in which he was born; and that, having learned these
particulars, he will then proceed to ascertain in what respects
the constellation that was in the ascendant at his nativity
corresponds with the aspect of the celestial bodies at the time
of making the inquiry. Upon this comparison he grounds his
prediction of the favourable or unfavourable termination of
the adventure. 2

It should be observed that the Tartars compute their time
by a cycle of twelve years ; to the first of which they give the
name of the lion; to the second year, that of the ox; to the
third, the dragon; to the fourth, the dog; and so of the rest,
until the whole of the twelve have elapsed. When a person,
therefore, is asked in what year he was born, he replies, In the
course of the year of the lion, upon such a day, at such an hour
and minute; all of which has been carefully noted by his
parents in a book. Upon the completion of the twelve years
of the cycle, they return to the first, and continually repeat
the same series. 3

1 In later times the publication of the Chinese almanac has been an
affair of government, and none is circulated but under the sanction of
the emperor; the astronomical part being computed by Europeans, and
the astrological part invented by the Chinese.

2 It appears that the astrologers of Pekin were not exempt from the
suspicion of sometimes using flagitious means to make the events tally
with their prophecies, of which the journal of Shah Rokh s ambassadors
affords a remarkable instance. " Les astrologues du Khatai," they
observe, " avoient pronostique que cette annee le palais de 1 empereur
seroit endommage du feu, et cette prediction fut le sujet de cette illu
mination. Les emirs (mandarins) s etant assembles, rempereur leur fit
un festin, et les regala." Three months afterwards we find the follow
ing passage: " La nuit suivante, par un decret de Dieu, le feu prit au
nouveau palais de 1 empereur, non sans quelque soupgon de queique
fourberie des astrologues. L appartement principal qui avoit quatre-
vingt coudees de long et trente de large. ... fut entierement bruleV

Pp. 9 12.

3 " Les Tartares," says De Guignes, pere, " ont aussi un cycle de douze
ans. Les denominations de chaque annee sont prises des noms de

Religion of the Tartars 2 1 9

CHAPTER XXVI

OF THE RELIGION OF THE TARTARS OF THE OPINIONS THEY
HOLD RESPECTING THE SOUL AND OF SOME OF THEIR
CUSTOMS

As has already been observed, these people are idolaters, and
for deities, each person has a tablet fixed up against a high
part of the wall of his chamber, upon which is written a name,
that serves to denote the high, celestial, and sublime God; and
to this they pay daily adoration, with incense burning.* Lift
ing up their hands and then striking their faces against the
floor three times, 2 they implore from him the blessings of sound
intellect and health of body; without any further petition.
Below this, on the floor, they have a statue which they name
Natigai, which they consider as the God of all terrestrial things
or whatever is produced from the earth. They give him a wife
and children, 3 and worship him in a similar manner, burning
incense, raising their hands, and bending to the floor. To him

differens animaux; ainsi Ton disoit 1 annee de^la souris, du bceuf, etc.,
pour dire la premiere ou la seconde annee; et a la fin des douze annees
on recommencoit de la meme fa?on. Les Chinois pnt quelquefois fait
usage de ce c} cle." (Hist, des Huns, torn. i. p. xlyii.) In the names of
the years, as furnished by different writers, there is some variation, but
according to the most modern of the authorities they are as follows:
" the rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, cock,
dog, and hog;" from whence it appears that our author s account of
the cycle is not merely imperfect, but incorrect, if he really placed the
names in the order in which they are given in the text. By the lion
(as has already been shown in note 1 , p. 194) is meant the tiger; but
this animal, instead of being the first of the series, is only the third, and
should follow, instead of preceding the ox; nor does the dragon or the
dog belong to those numerical years to which they are assigned. What
he has said is fully sufficient to evince a general acquaintance with the
Tartar calendar, and probably what he wrote or dictated amounted to
this, that each of the twelve years bore the name of an animal, such as
the lion, ox, dog, etc., without any intention of furnishing an exact list.

1 The custom of paying adoration to a written tablet instead of the
image or representation of a deity was properly Kataian rather than
Tartar, but it might have been adopted by the latter people along with
other Chinese practices, and especially by the emperor. The words
inscribed are tien, heaven, hoang-tien, supreme heaven, shang-ti, sovereign
lord.

a Sbattere i denti is literally to gnash the teeth or strike them against
each other; but this is obviously a misapprehension of what was meant
to express the act of prostration and striking the ground with the fore
head. The prostrations before the throne or tablet of the emperor are
three times three.

8 Staunton speaks of the worship of Fo s wife and child in the Putala
or temple of Zhehol (Jehol) in Tartary, vol. it. p. 258.

22O Travels of Marco Polo

they pray for seasonable weather, abundant crops, increase of
family, and the like. They believe the soul to be immortal, in
this sense, that immediately upon the death of a man, it enters
into another body, and that accordingly as he has acted vir
tuously or wickedly during his life, his future state will become,
progressively, better or worse. 1 If he be a poor man, and has
conducted himself worthily and decently, he will be re-born,
in the first instance, from the womb of a gentlewoman, and
become, himself, a gentleman; next, from the womb of a lady
of rank, and become a nobleman; thus continually ascending
in the scale of existence until he be united to the divinity.
But if, on the contrary, being the son of a gentleman, he has
behaved unworthily, he will, in his next state, be a clown, and
at length a dog, continually descending to a condition more
vile than the preceding. 2

Their style of conversation is courteous; they salute each
other politely, with countenances expressive of satisfaction, 3
have an air of good breeding, and eat their victuals with par
ticular cleanliness. To their parents they show the utmost
reverence; but should it happen that a child acts disrespect
fully to or neglects to assist his parents in their necessity, there
is a public tribunal, whose especial duty it is to punish with
severity the crime of filial ingratitude, when the circumstance
is known. 4 Malefactors guilty of various crimes, who are
apprehended and thrown into prison, are executed by strang
ling; but such as remain till the expiration of three years,
being the time appointed by his majesty for a general gaol
delivery, and are then liberated, have a mark imprinted upon
one of their cheeks, that they may be recognised. 5

1 This is the Hindu doctrine of the metempsychosis, which, along with
the schismatic religion of Buddha, was introduced into China (as the
annals of that country inform us) about the year 65 of our era. It had
not, however, (according to the elder De Guignes,) made any consider
able) progress until the year 335, when the emperor then reigning took it
under his protection.

3 According to the Hindu belief the souls of men reanimate new bodies,
" until by repeated regenerations all their sins are done away, and they
attain such a degree of perfection as will entitle them to what is called
mukti, eternal salvation, by which is understood a release from future
transmigration, and an absorption in the nature of the Godhead." Wil-
kins, Notes to Bhagvat Gita, p. 140.

3 It is evidently of the Kataians, and not of the rude Tartars, that our
author here speaks.

4 " Un tils," says De Guignes, qui accuse son pere ou sa mere,
meme avec raison, est puni par i exil." -Tom. iii. p. 117.

5 The distinction in the degree of punishment between executing
a criminal soon after condemnation, or at the regulated period, is fre
quently adverted to in the Lettres ediftantes.

Some Tartar Customs 221

The present grand khan has prohibited all species of gam
bling and other modes of cheating,, to which the people of this
country are addicted more than any others upon earth; and
as an argument for deterring them from the practice, he says
to them (in his edict), " I subdued you by the power of my
sword, and consequently whatever you possess belongs of
right to me: if you gamble, therefore, you are sporting with
my property." He does not, however, take anything arbi
trarily in virtue of this right. The order and regularity ob
served by all ranks of people, when they present themselves
before his majesty, ought not to pass unnoticed. When they
approach within half a mile of the place where he happens to
be, they show their respect for his exalted character by assum
ing a humble, placid, and quiet demeanour, insomuch that not
the least noise, nor the voice of any person calling out, or even
speaking aloud, is heard. 1 Every man of rank carries with him
a small vessel, into which he spits, so long as he continues in
the hall of audience, no one daring to spit on the floor; 2 and
this being done, he replaces the cover, and makes a salutation.
They are accustomed likewise to take with them handsome
buskins made of white leather, and when they reach the court,
but before they enter the hall (for which they wait a summons
from the grand khan), they put on these white buskins, and give
those in which they had walked to the care of the servants.
This practice is observed that they may not soil the beautiful
carpets, which are curiously wrought with silk and gold, and
exhibit a variety of colours. 3

1 This perfect silence at the court of Pekin is particularly noticed by
Bell, who says: " As we advanced we found all the ministers of state,
and officers belonging to the court, seated upon fur-cushions, cross-legged,
before the hall in the open air; among these, places were appointed for
the ambassador and his retinue, and in this situation we remained . . .
till the emperor came into the hall. During this interval . . . not the
least noise was heard from any quarter." (Vol. ii. p. 5.) Again he ob
serves: By this time the hall was pretty full, and, what is surprising,
there was not the least noise, hurry, or confusion. ... In short, the
characteristic of the court of Pekin is order and decency, rather than
grandeur and magnificence." P. 9.

2 This kind of utensil is common in many parts of the East Indies,
where it is commonly termed, from the Portuguese, a cuspidor. It
might be inferred from hence that the practice then prevailed of masti
cating something of the nature of betel.

3 In the modern descriptions of Chinese furniture we do not find any
notice taken of carpets, for which mats appear to be substituted; but
it does not follow that they were equally disused in the palaces of Kublai ,
whose family were the conquerors of Persia and other countries of Asia,
where the manufacture of this article of luxury was in perfection. Du
Halde, however, in describing the capital city of the province of Shan-si,

222 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXVII

OF THE RIVER NAMED PULISANGAN, AND OF THE

BRIDGE OVER IT

HAVING thus completed the account of the government and
police of the province of Cathay and city of Kanbalu, as well
as of the magnificence of the grand khan, we shall now proceed
to speak of other parts of the empire. You must know then
that the grand khan sent Marco as his ambassador to the
west; and leaving Kanbalu, he travelled westward during full
four months; we shall now tell you all he saw going and
coming.

Upon leaving the capital and travelling ten miles, 1 you
come to a river named Pulisangan, which discharges itself
into the ocean, and is navigated by many vessels entering
from thence, with considerable quantities of merchandise. 2
Over this river there is a very handsome bridge of stone,
perhaps unequalled by another in the world. Its length is
three hundred paces, and its width eight paces; so that ten
men can, without inconvenience, ride abreast. 3 It has
twenty-four arches, supported by twenty-five piers erected in

says: " Outre differences etoffes qui se fabriquent en cette ville, comme
ailleurs, on y fait en particulier des tapis facon de Turquie, de quelque
grandeur qu on les commande." Tom. i. p. 204.

1 In the epitome of 1496 and subsequent Venice editions the words
are, mesi x., ten months, instead of died miglia, ten miles; in which
latter consistent sense the Basle edition agrees with Ramusio. The
period also of our author s journey is extended from four to fourteen
months, the one error having evidently given birth to the other.

2 This river, the name of which is variously written Pulisangan,
Pulisangium, Pulisachniz, Pulsaiichimz, and Paluisanguis, appears from
the circumstances stated to be the Hoen-ho of the Jesuits map, which,
uniting with another stream from the north-west, forms the Pe-ho or
White River. This, in the lower part of its course, and to the distance
of many miles from the Yellow Sea, into which it disembogues, is navig
able for vessels of considerable burthen, although too rapid for that pur
pose at the part where it crossed our author s route to the south-west.
It may be remarked that in the Persian language the words puh-sangi
signify the " stone bridge," and it is not improbable that the western
people in the service of the emperor may have given this appellation to
the place where a bridge of great celebrity was thrown over the river,
which is here applied to the river itself. It will be found to occur in
Elphinstone s Account of Caubul, p. 429, and in Ouseley s Ibn Haukul,

p. 277-

3 Ten horsemen could not draw up abreast in a less space than thirty

feet, and might probably require forty when in motion. The paces
here spoken of must therefore be geometric; and upon this calculation
the bridge would be five hundred yards in length.

River of Pulisangan 223

the water, all of serpentine stone, 1 and built with great skill.
On each side, and from one extremity to the other, there is a
handsome parapet, formed of marble slabs and pillars arranged
in a masterly style. At the commencement of the ascent
the bridge is something wider than at the summit, but from
the part where the ascent terminates, the sides run in straight
lines and parallel to each other. 2 Upon the upper level there
is a massive and lofty column, resting upon a tortoise of
marble, and having near its base a large figure of a lion, with
a lion also on the top. 3 Towards the slope of the bridge
there is another handsome column or pillar, with its lion, at
the distance of a pace and a half from the former; and all
the spaces between one pillar and another, throughout the
whole length of the bridge, are filled up with slabs of marble,
curiously sculptured, and mortised into the next adjoining
pillars, which are, in like manner, a pace and a half asunder,
and equally surmounted with lions, 4 forming altogether a
beautiful spectacle. These parapets serve to prevent accidents

1 The serpent-stone, or serpentinstein of the Germans, is a well-known
species, and considered as an inferior kind of jade.

2 By P. Magalhanes, who particularly notices this description, our
author is understood to speak here of the perfect level of the surface,
and not of the straightness of the sides: Aux deux extremites," he
translates, " il est plus large qu au haut de la montee: mais quand on a
acheve de monter, on le trouve plat et de niveau comme s il avoit este tire
a la ligne." (Nouv. Relat. p. 14.) But the words, uguale per longo
corne se fosse tirato per linea," seem rather to refer to the general paral
lelism of the sides, although at the ends they diverged, as is the case
with almost all bridges.

3 It has been observed before, that when our author speaks of lions in
China, as living animals, he undoubtedly means tigers; but it is other
wise with respect to the imaginary and grotesque representations of the
lion, in marble, bronze, and porcelain, employed as ornaments in the
public buildings and gardens of these people. The ideas of the symbolic
lion and of the tortoise are borrowed from the singa and the kdrma of
Hindu mythology.

4 It is difficult to understand from the words of the text (the obscurity
of which is likely to have been increased by successive transcripts) the
position of these larger columns with regard to the other parts of the
bridge; but it seems to be meant, that in the line of the parapet or balus
trade, which was formed of alternate slabs of marble and pillars, there
was in the middle (or over the centre arch or pier) a column of a size
much larger than the rest, having a tortoise for its base or pedestal; and
it may be presumed, although not so expressed, that there was a similar
column in the balustrade on the opposite side. Our author seems,
indeed, to have been sensible of this kind of deficiency in his description,
when he says at the conclusion of the chapter, " Et nelle discesa del
ponte e come nell ascesa." One of the Jesuit missionaries who mentions
a bridge which he had crossed in this part of the province says, " Les
gardefous en sont de marbre; on conte de chaque cote cent quarante-
huit poteaux avec des lionceaux au-dessus . . . et aux deux bouts du
pont quatre elephans accroupis." Lett. 6dif. torn. xvii. p. 263.

224 Travels of Marco Polo

that might otherwise happen to passengers. What has been
said applies to the descent as well as to the ascent of the
bridge. 1

CHAPTER XXVIII

OF THE CITY OF GOUZA

AFTER having passed this bridge,, proceeding thirty miles in
a westerly direction,, through a country abounding with fine
buildings, amongst vineyards and much cultivated and fertile
grounds, you arrive at a handsome and considerable city,
named Gouza, 2 where there are many convents of the idolaters.
The inhabitants in general live by commerce and manual arts.
They have manufactures of gold tissues and the finest kind
of gauze. The inns for accommodating travellers are there
numerous. 3 At the distance of a mile beyond this, place, the
roads divide; the one going in a westerly, and the other in a
south-easterly direction, the former through the province of
Cathay, and the latter towards the province of Manji. 4 From

1 Notwithstanding any partial difficulties In the description, or seem
ing objections to the credibility of the account given of this magnificent
bridge, there is unquestionable authority for the existence of one similar
to it in all the essential circumstances, and as nearly about the situation
mentioned as can be ascertained from the conciseness of the itinerary,
so lately as the seventeenth century. It may well, however, be supposed
that in the lapse of four hundred years material changes must have
taken place, in consequence of accidents, repairs, and perhaps renewals.

2 From the relative situation and other circumstances mentioned of
this place, I do not hestitate to consider it as intended for Tso-cheu, a
city of the second class, spoken of in the preceding note; and this will
appear the more probable when it is understood, that, although cor
ruptly written Gou-za in Ramusio s text, it is Gio-gu in the early Venice
epitomes, [Gio-guy in the Paris Latin text,] Geo-gui in that of Basle,
and Cyongium in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts, in all of which the
first letter is meant to be soft, and evidently to represent the Chinese
sound which we more aptly express by Ts. It has already been observed,
and the instances will again frequently occur, of the Chinese appellative
term cheu or tcheou (for a city of the second order) being corrupted to
gui, apparently an orthographical mistake for giu, which nearly ap
proaches to the true sound. Tso-cheu, according to the journals both
of Van Braam and De Guignes, is twelve French leagues distant from
Pekin, but as the former adds that it was a hundred and twenty Chinese
li, and as this is more likely to be the true distance (for certainly those
gentlemen did not measure it), we are justified in considering it as up
wards of forty Italian miles, [the earliest and best MSS. have thirty, as
given in our text,] at which number our author states it.

3 Van Braam observes, that at Tso-cheu they found an excellent con"
quan (kong-kuan], or inn.

4 The road by which the persons who composed the Dutch embassy

The City of Achbaluch 225

the city of Gouza it is a journey of ten days through Cathay to
the kingdom of Ta-in-fu ; x in the course of which you pass
many fine cities and strong places, in which manufactures and
commerce flourish, and where you see many vineyards and
much cultivated land. From hence grapes are carried into the
interior of Cathay, where the vine does not grow. Mulberry-
trees also abound, the leaves of which enable the inhabitants
to produce large quantities of silk. A degree of civilization
prevails amongst all the people of this country, in conse
quence of their frequent intercourse with the towns, which are
numerous and but little distant from each other. To these
the merchants continually resort, carrying their goods from
one city to another, as the fairs are successively held at each.
At the end of five days journey beyond the ten that have
been mentioned, it is said there is another city still larger
and more handsome (than Ta-in-fu), named Achbaluch, 2 to
which the limits of his majesty s hunting grounds extend,
and within which no persons dare to sport, excepting the
princes of his own family, and those whose names are inscribed
on the grand falconer s list; but beyond these limits, al]
persons qualified by their rank are at liberty to pursue game.
It happens, however, that the grand khan scarcely ever takes
the amusement of the chase on this side of the country ; 3 and
the consequence is, that the wild animals, especially hares
multiply to such a degree as to occasion the destruction of all
the growing corn of the province. When this came to the

of 1795 travelled from Canton to Pekin was this latter, which is here
described as leading through Tso-cheu to Manji or Southern China.
The western road diverges at this point, and is that which was taken, in
1668, by P. Fontaney, who particularly describes it in his journal, pub
lished by Du Halde.

1 Ta-in-fu, or Tainfu, is obviously Tai-yuen-fu, the capital of the
modern province of Shan-si, which was frequently, in ancient times, the
seat of an independent government. Its direction is about west-south
west from Tso-cheu, and the distance appears to be about ten eas*:
stages.

The circumstances stated do not supply the means of identifying
this place, which was known to our author only by report. Its situation
was probably to the north-west, as he afterwards proceeds to speak of
places more remote, in a south-western direction; and it may have been
intended for the city of Tai-tong-fu, which lies in that direction. The
name of Ach-baluch is evidently Tartar, and serves to show that the
want of the final guttural in Kanbalu, which the Persians give to it, is
an accidental omission. No mention of this city is found in the Latin
editions.

1 We have seen that the usual hunting expeditions of the grand khan
took place either at Shang-tu, which lies northward of Pekin, or in the
direction of Eastern Tartary and the river Amur.

H

226 Travels of Marco Polo

knowledge of the grand khan,, he repaired thither,, with the
whole of his court, and innumerable multitudes of these
animals were taken.

CHAPTER XXIX

OF THE KINGDOM OF TA-IN-FU

AT the end of ten days journey from the city of Gouza, you
arrive (as has been said) at the kingdom of Ta-in-fu, whose
chief city, the capital of the province,, bears the same name.
It is of the largest size, and very beautiful. 1 A considerable
trade is carried on here, and a variety of articles are manu
factured, particularly arms and other military stores, which
are at this place conveniently situated for the use of the grand
khan s armies. Vineyards are numerous, from which grapes
in vast abundance are gathered; and although within all the
jurisdiction of Ta-in-fu no other vines are found than those
produced in the district immediately surrounding the capital,
there is yet a sufficient supply for the whole of the province. 2

1 " La ville capitale de Tai-yuen," says P. Martini, whom Du Halde
copies, " a toujours este mise au rang des plus considerables, ancienne,
magnifique, et bien bastie: elle a de ires- fortes murailles, environ de
trois lieues de circuit, fort peuplee; au reste, est situee dans un lieu fort
agreable et fort sain. . . . II ne faut pas s estonner s il s y trouve si
grande quantite de bastimens et si rnagiiinques, puis que 9 a este la
demeure de tant de roys." (Thevenot, torn. ii. p. 48.) It may be neces
sary here to remark, that what appears to be the concluding syllable in
the names of Chinese towns (but which is a distinct monosyllable), serves
to indicate their size or rank, and municipal jurisdiction or dependence:
thus f& or fou denotes a city of the first class, having under its super
intendence a certain number of those belonging to the inferior classes;
cheu or token denotes a city of the second class, subject to the jurisdiction
of its fit ; and hien a city or town of the third class, subject to its cheu.
It also appears that each greater city contains these subordinate juris
dictions within itself.

2 In this instance I have ventured to correct the text of Rarnusio, by
substituting " grapes for " wine," although it is in conformity with
the Venice epitome and the Latin version; because I am persuaded that,
from ignorance of the facts, the expression of the original has been mis
understood, and our author is made to assert of the liquor what was
only intended to apply to the fruit. " La Chine," says De Guignes,
" produit du raisin, mais le pays n est pas vignoble: le raisin meme
paroit peu propre a faire du vin, et ce n est qu avec peine que les mis-
sionnaires & Peking reussissent a en fake." (Tom. iii. p. 348.) That
these dried grapes, or raisins, as they are termed in English, were the
article of trade that our author meant to describe, will, I trust, be con
sidered as at least highly probable, inasmuch as the correction renders
him consistent with himself, and his information, with the knowledge
we have since acquired.

Fortress of Thai-gin 227

Other fruits also grow here in plenty, as does the mulberry-
tree, together with the worms that yield the silk.

CHAPTER XXX

OF THE CITY OF PI-AN-FU

LEAVING Ta-in-fu, and travelling westward, seven days
journey, through a fine country in which there are many cities
and strong places, where commerce and manufactures prevail,
and whose merchants, travelling over various parts of the
country, obtain considerable profits, you reach a city named
Pi-an-fu, which is of a large size and much celebrated. 1 It
likewise contains numerous merchants and artisans. Silk is
produced here also in great quantity. We shall not say any
thing further of these places, but proceed to speak of the
distinguished city of Ka-chan-fu; first noticing, however, a
noble fortress named Thai-gin.

CHAPTER XXXI

OF THE FORTRESS OF THAIGIN OR TAI-GIN

IN a western direction from Pi-an-fu there is a large and hand
some fortress named Thai-gin, 2 which is said to have been

1 This is the city of Pin-yang-fu, situated in the direction of south-
south-west from the former, upon the same river; the banks of which,
in its whole course, appear to be covered with towns. From its situation
with respect to the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, we are enabled to ascer
tain it to be the city visited by Shah Rokh s ambassadors, when they
had crossed the famous bridge of boats, and of which, after describing
the magnificence of its great temple, it is said: "Us y remarquerent
trois bordels publics, ou il y avoit des filles de joye d une grande beaute.
Quoique les filles du Khata i soient belles communement, neanmoins
elles sont la plus belles qu ailleurs, et la ville pour ce sujet s appelle la
yille de la beaute." (Thevenot, iv. partie, p. 5.) This we may con
jecture to be the kind of celebrity to which our author so modestly
alludes.

2 The place here called Thai- gin and Tai-gin is in the Latin versions
Chin-cui and Cay-cui, and in the Italian epitomes Chai-cui, [in the Paris
Latin Cay-tui] : names so unlike that it may well be thought difficult to
identify it from the orthography; but its situation between Pin-yang
and the great Yellow River points it out with some probability, as the
Kiai-tcheou of the Jesuits map; nor will the sound of the word Kiai,
which is the essential part of the name, be found to differ materially
from the Cay and Chai of the Latin and early Italian versions. With

228 Travels of Marco Polo

built, at a remote period, by a king who was called Dor. 1
Within the walls of the fort stands a spacious and highly-
ornamented palace, the hall of which contains paintings of all
the renowned princes who, from ancient times, have reigned
at this place, forming together a superb exhibition. A remark
able circumstance in the history of this king Dor shall now be
related. He was a powerful prince, assumed much state,
and was always waited upon by young women of extraordinary
beauty, a vast number of whom he entertained at his court.
When, for recreation, he went about the fortress, he was drawn
in his carriage by these damsels, which they could do with
facility, as it was of a small size. They were devoted to his
service, and performed every office that administered to his
convenience or amusement. In his government he was not
wanting in vigour, and he ruled with dignity and justice.
The works of his castle, according to the report of the people
of the country, were beyond example strong. He was, how
ever, a vassal of Un-khan, who, as we have already stated,
was known by the appellation of Prester John; but, influ
enced by pride, he rebelled against him. When this came to
the knowledge of Prester John, he was exceedingly grieved,

respect to the latter monosyllable, whether it be corruptly written gin
(for giu) or cui (for ciu), it is indubitably meant for the term cheu, tcheou,
giu, or ciu (according to the mode of writing it with the different Euro
pean alphabets), which denotes (as already observed) a city of the second
order.

1 The name of this prince, which in Ramusio s text, as well as in the
Italian epitome, is written Dor, is in some Latin editions absurdly trans
formed to Darius. The former, it must be confessed, bears no resem
blance to a Chinese, and but little to a Tartar word; yet, even on the
supposition of the story being merely a popular legend with which our
author was amused in the course of his travels through the country, the
names of the actors ought not to be the less in harmony with the language
of its inhabitants. I am therefore disposed to hazard a conjecture respect
ing it, that by some may be thought too bold, but which I am persuaded
will appear most probable to those readers who are best acquainted with
the histories of these people. It is known that, previously to the invasion
of Jengiz-khan, the northern provinces of China were held in subjection
by a race from Eastern Tartary, called Niuche, but whose dynasty
received the appellation of Kin, from a term signifying " gold " in the
Chinese language. L an 1118," says the historian of the Huns, " O-ko-
ta fut proclame empereur, et donna a sa dynastie le nom de Kin en
Chinois, et d Altoun dans la langue de ces peuples, c est-a-dire, Or; c est
de-la que les Arabes les out appelles Altoun- khans." (Tom. i. p. 208.)
May not the prince here spoken of have belonged to this family of the
Kin, who were the contemporaries of Un-khan; and may not the D Or,
or Doro, of our author be intended for a translation of the Chinese term ?
The word enters into the composition of many proper names, and is
often rendered by its equivalent in European languages; as in the
instance of " Kin-chan ou Montague d or."

History of King Dor 229

being sensible that, from the strong situation of the castle, it
would be in vain to march against it, or even to proceed to any
act of hostility. Matters had remained some time in this state,
when seven cavaliers belonging to his retinue presented them
selves before him, and declared their resolution to attempt
the seizure of king ,Dor s person, and to bring him alive to
his majesty. To this they were encouraged by the promise
of a large reward. They accordingly took their departure
for the place of his residence, and feigning to have arrived
from a distant country, made him an offer of their services.
In his employment they so ably and diligently performed their
duties that they gained the esteem of their new master, who
showed them distinguished favour, insomuch that when he
took the diversion of hunting, he always had them near his
person. One day when the king was engaged in the chase, and
had crossed a river which separated him from the rest of his
party, who remained on the opposite side, these cavaliers per
ceived that the opportunity now presented itself of executing
their design. They drew their swords, surrounded the king,
and led him away by force towards the territory of Prester John,
without its being possible for him to receive assistance from his
own people. When they reached the court of that monarch,
he gave orders for clothing his prisoner in the meanest apparel,
and, with the view of humiliating him by the indignity, com
mitted to him the charge of his herds. In this wretched con
dition he remained for two years, strict care being taken that
he should not effect his escape. At the expiration of that
period, Prester John caused him to be again brought before him,
trembling from apprehension that they were going to put him to
death. But on the contrary, Prester John, after a sharp and
severe admonition, in which he warned him against suffering
pride and arrogance to make him swerve from his allegiance in
future, granted him a pardon, directed that he should be
dressed in royal apparel, and sent him back to his principality
with an honourable escort. From that time forward he always
preserved his loyalty, and lived on amicable terms with Prester
John. The foregoing is what was related to me on the subject
of king Dor. 1

1 It will be observed that our author does not express himself with any
degree of confidence as to the authenticity of this romantic adventure.
If it was only an idle tale imposed upon him for an historical fact, it
must have been the invention of Tartars rather than of Chinese, who
would not have made a prince of Shan-si the vassal of a Tartar sovereign.
On the contrary, it is asserted by Gaubil that their annals describe Ua-

230 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XXXII

OF THE VERY LARGE AND NOBLE RIVER CALLED THE

KARA-MORAN

UPON leaving the fortress of Thai-gin, and travelling about
twenty miles, you come to a river called the Kara-moran, 1
which is of such magnitude, both in respect to width and
depth, that no solid bridge can be erected upon it. Its waters
are discharged into the ocean, as shall hereafter be more
particularly mentioned. 2 On its banks are many cities and
castles, in which a number of trading people reside, who carry
on an extensive commerce. The country bordering upon it
produces ginger, and silk also in large quantities. Of birds
the multitude is incredible, especially of pheasants, 3 which are
sold at the rate of three for the value of a Venetian groat.
Here likewise grows a species of large cane, in infinite abun
dance, some of a foot, and others a foot and a half (in circum
ference), which are employed by the inhabitants for a variety of
useful purposes. 4

khan himself as tributary to the sovereigns of the dynasty of Kin; and
that the Chinese title of vang, or prince, was prefixed to his original title
of khan, forming together Vang-khan, of which the Arabs made Ung-
khan or Un-khan. [The account of his reception by Prester John is
told with rather more detail in the Latin text published by the Paris
Geographical Society.]

1 This name (written Caromoran in the Latin, Carmoro in the early
epitomes, and Cathametam in the Paris Latin), which signifies the Black
River, is well known to be the Tartar appellation of that vast stream
which, with a very winding course, traverses the whole of China, under
the name of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River; so called from the colour
of its waters, impregnated as they are with yellow clay. It is at the same
time not improbable that in the upper part of its course, through a differ
ent and perhaps mossy soil, its hue may equally justify the epithet of
Black.

8 Some of the rivers of Tartary discharge themselves into lakes, whilst
others are lost in the sandy deserts.

8 Frequent mention is made of these birds, at places in the vicinity of
the Yellow River.

* The bamboo cane (arundo bambos), one of the most useful materials
with which nature has furnished the inhabitants of warm climates, is
known to be common in China. In the Mem. concern, les Chinois, torn,
ii. p. 532, it is observed that the greater part of the houses in the pro
vince of Se-chuen are constructed of bamboos. The latitude of the part
of the Kara-muran or Hoang-ho here spoken of is about 35. Further
northward the bamboo is not likely to flourish.

City of Ka-chan-fu 23 i

CHAPTER XXXIII

OF THE CITY OF KA-CHAN-FU

HAVING crossed this river and travelled three days journey,
you arrive at a city named Ka-chan-fu/ whose inhabitants are
idolaters. They carry on a considerable traffic, and work at
a variety of manufactures. The country produces in great
abundance, silk, ginger, galangal, 2 spikenard, and many drugs
that are nearly unknown in our part of the world. Here
they weave gold tissues, as well as every other kind of silken
cloth. We shall speak in the next place of the noble and
celebrated city of Ken-zan-fu, in the kingdom of the same
name.

CHAPTER XXXIV

OF THE CITY OF KEN-ZAN-FU

DEPARTING from Ka-chan-fu, and proceeding eight days
journey in a westerly direction, you continually meet with
cities and commercial towns, and pass many gardens and
cultivated grounds, with abundance of the mulberry or tree
that contributes to the production of silk. The inhabitants in
general worship idols, but there are also found here Nestorian
Christians, 3 Turkomans, 4 and Saracens. The wild beasts of
the country afford excellent sport, and a variety of birds also

1 The name of Cacianfu, or Ka-chan-fu, which in the early Venice
epitome is Cancianfu, and in the Basle, Cianfu (but which does not occur
in the B.M. manuscript, nor in the early Latin edition), cannot be traced
in Du Halde s map; nor does there appear any city of the first class
(implied by the adjunct fu] between that part of the Hoang-ho and the
capital of the province of Shen-si, towards which our author s route is
here directed.

2 Galanga, or galangal, well known in the materia medica, is the root
of the Kcempferia. By the Italian spico I suppose is meant spikenard
(Nardus Indica).

3 The province of Shen-si is understood to have been the principal
seat of Christianity, when preached in this country, at an early period,
by the Nestorians. Being the most western of the provinces that com
pose the empire of China, it was the easiest of access to those who travelled
by land from Syria, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean.

4 By Turkomans we are not to understand the Tartars of the Desert,
but merchants either from Turkomania of Asia Minor (the kingdom of
the Seljuks of Rum), or from Bokhara, formerly the capital of Turkistan,
a place of considerable traffic and civilization.

232 Travels of Marco Polo

are taken. At the end of those eight stages you arrive at the
city of Ken-zan-fu, 3 which was anciently the capital of an
extensive, noble, and powerful kingdom, the seat of many
kings, highly descended and distinguished in arms. 2 At the
present day it is governed by a son of the grand khan, named
Mangalu, upon whom his father has conferred the sovereignty. 3
It is a country of great commerce, and eminent for its manu
factures. Raw silk is produced in large quantities, and
tissues of gold and every other kind of silk are woven there.
At this place likewise they prepare every article necessary for
the equipment of an army. All species of provisions are in
abundance, and to be procured at a moderate price. The
inhabitants in general worship idols, but there are some Chris
tians, Turkomans, and Saracens. 4 In a plain, about five miles
from the city, stands a beautiful palace belonging to king
Mangalu, embellished with many fountains and rivulets, both
within and on the outside of the buildings. There is also a
fine park, surrounded by a high wall, with battlements, enclos
ing an extent of five miles, where all kinds of wild animals, both
beasts and birds, are kept for sport. In its centre is this
spacious palace, which, for symmetry and beauty, cannot be
surpassed. It contains many halls and chambers, ornamented
with paintings in gold and the finest azure, as well as with
great profusion of marble. Mangalu, pursuing the footsteps
of his father, governs his principality with strict equity, and
is beloved by his people. He also takes much delight in hunt
ing and hawking.

1 However different the name of Ken-zan-fu may be from Si-ngan-fu,
or Si-gan-fu (as it is more commonly written), circumstances show that
the eminent city described in the text is meant for the capital of the
province of Shen-si, which appears to be distant about nine stages from
the passage of the Hoang-ho. The practice of changing the appellations
(always significant) of important places, upon the accession of a new
family, is matter of notoriety; and accordingly the several names of
Kan-chug, Yun-ghing, Chang-gan, and Ngan-si, which under the dynasty
of the Ming (1370) was reversed and made Si-ngan, are recorded as having
at different periods belonged to this city.

2 See Appendix II.

3 In a list of the sons of Kublai , given by De Guignes (Hist. gen. des
Huns, liv. xvi. p. 189), we find the third, there named Mangkola, to have
been governor of Shen-si, Se-chuen, and Tibet.

* " Les Mogols ou Yuen," says the younger De Guignes, " qui s em-
parerent du trone en 1279 e t chasserent les Song, amenerent un grand
nombre de Mussulmans. Ceux-ci furent tres-nombreux jusqu a la
dynastic des Ming, qui commenQa a regner en 1368, apres avoir detruit
les Tartares,"

The Boundaries of Cathay and Manji 233

CHAPTER XXXV

OF THE BOUNDARIES OF CATHAY AND MANJI

TRAVELLING westward three days from the residence of Man-
galu, you still find towns and castles, whose inhabitants subsist
by commerce and manufactures, and where there is an abun
dance of silk; but at the end of these three stages you^ enter
upon a region of mountains and valleys, which lie within the
province of Kun-kin. 1 This tract, however, has no want of
inhabitants, who are worshippers of idols, and cultivate the
earth. They live also by the chase, the land being much
covered with woods. In these are found many wild beasts,
such as lions (tigers), bears, lynxes, fallow deer, antelopes,
stags, and many other animals, which are made to turn to
good account. This region extends to the distance of twenty
clays journey, during which the way lies entirely over moun
tains and through valleys and woods, but still interspersed
with towns where travellers may find convenient accommoda
tion. This journey of twenty days towards the west being
performed, you arrive at a place called Ach-baluch Manji,
which signifies, the white city 2 on the confines of Manji, where
the country becomes level, and is very populous. The in
habitants live by trade and manual arts. Large quantities of
ginger are produced here, which is conveyed through all the
province of Cathay, with great advantage to the merchants. 3
The country yields wheat, rice, and other grain plentifully,
and at a reasonable rate. This plain, thickly covered with

1 The country to which our author s description here applies is evi
dently the province of Se-chuen, which lies south-westward from Si-ngan-
fu, and is a mountainous region.

a It has been already noticed that baligh is a term used in Tartary
for " city," and ak, in the dialects of Turkistan, is known to signify
" white," which justifies our author s interpretation of the name; but
why he should express it in the Tartar language, unless on the supposi
tion of his having forgotten the Chinese appellation, does not appear.
I confess, also, that with such imperfect lights I am unable to make any
satisfactory conjecture with regard to its position; and this is the more
to be regretted, as it would have enabled us to ascertain the north-western
limits of Manji, or Southern China.

3 It may be doubted whether the root here called ginger was not
rather intended for that which we call China-root, and the Chinese
fu-lin (smilax), produced in its greatest perfection in this province, and
for which, as it was at that period little if at all known in European
pharmacy, it might be found necessary to substitute a familiar term.
La vraye ratine de Sina," says P. Martini, " se trouve seulement dans
cette province; pour la sauvage, on la trouve par tout." P. 79.

234 Travels of Marco Polo

habitations, continues for two stages, after which you again
come to high mountains, valleys, and forests. Travelling
twenty days still further to the west, you continue to find the
country inhabited, by people who worship idols, and subsist
upon the produce of their soil, as well as that of the chase.
Here also, besides the wild animals above enumerated, there
are great numbers of that species which produces the musk.

CHAPTER XXXVI

OF THE PROVINCE OF SIN-DIN-FU, AND OF THE GREAT

RIVER KIAN

HAVING travelled those twenty stages through a mountainous
country, you reach a plain on the confines of Manji, where
there is a district named Sin-din-fu, by which name also the
large and noble city, its capital, formerly the seat of many
rich and powerful kings, is called. 1 The circumference of the
city is twenty miles; but at the present day it is divided in
consequence of the following circumstances. The late old
king had three sons; and it being his wish that each of them
should reign after his death, he made a partition of the city
amongst them, separating one part from the other by walls,
although the whole continued to be surrounded by one general
enclosure. These three brothers accordingly became kings,
and each had for his portion a considerable tract of country,
the territory of their father having been extensive and rich.
But, upon its conquest by the grand khan, he destroyed these
three princes, and possessed himself of their inheritance. 2

The city is watered by many considerable streams, which,
descending from the distant mountains, surround and pass

1 This city, which in the Basle edition as well as in that of Ramusio
is named Sin-din-fu, in the older Latin Syn-dy-fu, and in the early epi
tomes, Sindirifa, appears from the circumstances mentioned to be that
now called Ching-tu-fu, situated on the western side of the province of
Se-chuen, of which it is the capital. The western boundary of Manji,
as has been observed, is not well known, but it is evident from the mili
tary operations of 1236 and 1238, that the Song, who then ruled it, were
masters of this city of Ching-tu. When taken by the Mungals it is said
(with no little exaggeration) that one million four hundred thousand
persons were put to the sword. Hist. gen. de la Chine, torn. ix. p. 219.

2 The king here spoken of must have been a tributary either of the
Song or of the Mungals, and might be one of those who received the
Chinese title of Vang, and were more or less independent, according to
the energy of the general government.

The Province of Sin-din-fu 235

through it in a variety of directions. Some of these rivers are
half a mile in width, others are two hundred paces, and very
deep, over which are built several large and handsome stone
bridges, eight paces in breadth, their length being greater or
less according to the size of the stream. From one extremity
to the other there is a row of marble pillars on each side, which
support the roof; for here the bridges have very handsome
roofs, constructed of wood, ornamented with paintings of a
red colour, and covered with tiles. Throughout the whole
length also there are neat apartments and shops, where all
sorts of trades are carried on. 1 One of the buildings, larger
than the rest, is occupied by the officers who collect the duties
upon provisions and merchandise, and a toll from persons
who pass the bridge. In this way, it is said, his majesty re
ceives daily the sum of a hundred besants of gold. 2 These
rivers, uniting their streams below the city, contribute to form
the mighty river called the Kian, 3 whose course, before it dis
charges itself into the ocean, is equal to a hundred days
journey; 4 but of its properties occasion will be taken to speak
in a subsequent part of this book.

On these rivers and in the parts adjacent are many towns
and fortified places, and the vessels are numerous, in which
large quantities of merchandise are transported to and from
the city. The people of the province are idolaters. Depart
ing from thence you travel five stages, partly along a plain,
and partly through valleys, where you see many respectable

1 This peculiarity of the bridges in Se-chuen is not noticed in the
meagre accounts we have of that province, which all resolve themselves
into the original information given by P. Martini, in his Atlas Sinensis
(1655). The Latin edition of our author states, that the shops or booths
were set up in the morning, and removed from the bridge at night.

a In the other versions, instead of a hundred, it is stated at a thousand
besants (or sequins).

8 The numerous streams by which the city of Ching-tu is surrounded,
form their junction successively, and discharge their united waters into
the great river Kiang, as is here described, but its distance from the
latter is more considerable than the words of the text would lead us to
suppose. In the Basle edition, indeed, the Kiang is said to pass through
the city; per medium hujus civitatis transit fluvius qui dicitur Quian-
fu (Kiang-su) ; " [in the Paris Latin text the name of the river is Quingia-
fu ;] but besides that the nature of the river disproves the fact, the mis
take is explained by the Italian reading of the same passage, in the early
epitomes, where the expression is, " per mezo questa terra passa uno
grande fiume," by which is to be understood, as terra is here distinguished
from cittd, that it flowed through the district.

* In the Latin it is said to be ninety, and in the early Italian, seventy
stages or days journey. The distance from the city of Su-cheu-fu, which
stands at the junction of the river that runs from Ching-tu, with the
Kiang, is equal to about four-fifths of the breadth of China.

236

Travels of Marco Polo

mansions, castles, and small towns. The inhabitants subsist
by agriculture. In the city there are manufactures, particu
larly of very fine cloths and of crapes or gauzes. 1 This country,
like the districts already mentioned, is infested with lions
(tigers), bears, and other wild animals. At the end of these
five days journey you reach the desolated country of Thebeth.

CHAPTER XXXVII

OF THE PROVINCE OF THEBETH

THE province named Thebeth 2 was laid entirely waste at the
time that Mangu-khan carried his arms into that country.
To the distance of twenty days journey you see numberless
towns and castles in a state of ruin; and in consequence of
the want of inhabitants, wild beasts, and especially tigers,
have multiplied to such a degree that merchants and other
travellers are exposed there to great danger during the night.
They are not only under the necessity of carrying their pro
visions along with them, but are obliged, upon arriving at
their halting places, to employ the utmost circumspection,
and to take the following precautions, that their horses may
not be devoured. In this region, and particularly in the
neighbourhood of rivers, are found canes (bamboos) of the
length of ten paces, three palms in circumference, and three
palms also in the space between each knot or joint. Several
of these, in their green state, the travellers tie together, and
place them, when evening approaches, at a certain distance
from their quarters, with a fire lighted around them, when,
by the action of the heat, they burst with a tremendous
explosion. 3 The noise is so loud as to be heard at the dis-

1 This sentence is a continuation of the account of Sin-din-fu, and
ought to have had place in an earlier part of the chapter. It shows
the inartificial manner in which the work was composed.

2 The name of Thebeth, Thibet, or Tibet, is sometimes confined to
that country, on the northern side of the Himalaya mountains, which
is under the immediate government of the Dalai lama and Panchin
lama, and sometimes is made to embrace the whole of what is other
wise called Tangut, including the nations bordering on the provinces of
Se-chuen and Shen-si, whom the Chinese term the Si-fan or Tu-fan. It
appears to be of this eastern part, commencing at about five days
journey from the city of Ching-tu, that our author proceeds to speak.

3 The very loud explosion of burning bamboos is well known to those
who have witnessed the conflagration of a village or a bazaar, in coun
tries where the buildings are of that material. What most resembles it
is the irregular but incessant firing of arms of all descriptions during a
night of public rejoicing, in England.

Immoral Customs of Thebeth 237

tance of two miles,, which has the effect of terrifying the wild
beasts and making them fly from the neighbourhood. The
merchants also provide themselves with iron shackles, in order
to fasten the legs of their horses, which would otherwise, when
alarmed by the noise,, break their halters and run away; and,
from the neglect of this precaution, it has happened that many
owners have lost their cattle. Thus you travel for twenty
days through a desolated country, finding neither inns nor
provisions, unless perhaps once in three or four days, when
you take the opportunity of replenishing your stock of neces
saries. At the end of that period you begin to discover a few
castles and strong towns, built upon rocky heights, or upon the
summits of mountains, and gradually enter an inhabited and
cultivated district, where there is no longer any danger from
beasts of prey.

A scandalous custom, which could only proceed from the
blindness of idolatry, prevails amongst the people of these
parts, who are disinclined to marry young women so long as
they are in their virgin state, but require, on the contrary,
that they should have had previous commerce with many of
the other sex; and this, they assert, is pleasing to their deities,
and that a woman who has not had the company of men is
worthless. 1 Accordingly, upon the arrival of a caravan 2 of
merchants, and as soon as they have set up their tents for the
night, those mothers who have marriageable daughters con
duct them to the place, and each, contending for a preference,
entreats the strangers to accept of her daughter and enjoy her
society so long as they remain in the neighbourhood. 3 Such
as have most beauty to recommend them are of course chosen,
and the others return home disappointed and chagrined, whilst
the former continue with the travellers until the period of their

1 P. Martini, speaking of the province of Yun-nan, which adjoins to
that of Tibet, says of its inhabitants: Personne n epousoit de fille
parmi eux, qu un autre n eust eu premierement sa compagnie: ce sont
les paroles de nostre auteur Chinois." P. 196.

a This is the second instance in the course of the work of the employ
ment of the word caravan," taken from the Persian karwdn, and
adopted into most European languages. (See book ii. chap, xviii.) The
Arabic term, which we might have thought more likely to have been
introduced by the Crusaders, is htifilah.

3 Such is the depravity of human nature, that not only the moral but
the instinctive principle may be subdued by the thirst of gain or the
cravings of appetite. In his journey through Cooch Bahar on the road
to Tibet, Turner observes that " nothing is more common than to see a
mother dress up her child, and bring it to market, with no other hope,
no other view than to enhance the price she may procure for it." Em
bassy to Tibet, p. ii.

2 3 8

Travels of Marco Polo

departure. They then restore them to their mothers, and
never attempt to carry them away. It is expected, however,
that the merchants should make them presents of trinkets,
rings, or other complimentary tokens of regard, which the
young women take home with them. When, afterwards, they
are designed for marriage, they wear all these ornaments about
the neck or other part of the body, and she who exhibits the
greatest number of them is considered to have attracted the
attention of the greatest number of men, and is on that ac
count in the higher estimation with the young men who are
looking out for wives ; nor can she bring to her husband a more
acceptable portion than a quantity of such gifts. At the
solemnization of her nuptials, she accordingly makes a display
of them to the assembly, and he regards them as a proof that
their idols have rendered her lovely in the eyes of men. From
thenceforward no person can dare to meddle with her who has
become the wife of another, and this rule is never infringed.
These idolatrous people are treacherous and cruel, and holding
it no crime or turpitude to rob, are the greatest thieves in the
world. 1 They subsist by the chase and by fowling, as well
as upon the fruits of the earth.

Here are found the animals that produce the musk, and
such is the quantity, that the scent of it is diffused over the
whole country. Once in every month the secretion takes
place, and it forms itself, as has already been said, into a sort
of imposthume, or boil full of blood, near the navel; and the
blood thus issuing, in consequence of excessive repletion, be
comes the musk. 2 Throughout every part of this region the
animal abounds, and the odour generally prevails. They are
called gudderi in the language of the natives, 3 and are taken

1 This thievish character may have belonged to the Si- fan, who border
on the Chinese provinces (as it has belonged to most borderers), but
travellers describe the manners of the people of Tibet Proper as particu
larly ingenuous and honest.

* With respect to the supposed lunar influence on the secretion ol
musk, Strahlenberg informs us that it is not at all times of the same
strength, but " is best in summer, in rutting time, and at the full of
the moon.* P. 340.

8 The word gudderi, or any other approaching to it, is not to be found
hi the vocabularies we have of the languages of Tartary. In the northern
parts, according to Bell, the animal is named kaberda, or kabardyn accord
ing to Strahlenberg; and Kirkpatrick, in his account of Nepaul, names
it kastoora. It is not indeed improbable that gudderi or gadderi (as it
is written in the Latin text) may be a corruption of the Persian word
kasturt, which is the common term for the drug hi every part of the East,
and would be used by the Mahometan merchants even on the borders
of China.

Manners of the Tibetans 239

with dogs. These people use no coined money, nor even the
paper money of the grand khan, but for their currency employ
coral. 1 Their dress is homely, being of leather, undressed
skins, or of canvas. They have a language peculiar to the
province of Thebeth, which borders on Manji. This was
formerly a country of so much importance as to be divided
into eight kingdoms, containing many cities and castles. Its
rivers, lakes, and mountains are numerous. In the rivers gold-
dust is found in very large quantities. 2 Not only is the coral,
before mentioned, used for money, but the women also wear it
about their necks, and with it ornament their idols. 3 There
are manufactures of camlet and of gold cloth, and many drugs
are produced in the country that have not been brought to
ours. These people are necromancers, and by their infernal
art perform the most extraordinary and delusive enchant
ments that were ever seen or heard of. They cause tempests to
arise, accompanied with flashes of lightning and thunderbolts,
and produce many other miraculous effects. They are alto
gether an ill-conditioned race. They have dogs of the size of
asses, 4 strong enough to hunt all sorts of wild beasts, par-

1 It may not appear likely that the valuable red coral produced in the
Mediterranean should have been carried to the borders of China in suffi
cient quantity to be there made use of as currency ; nor is it a substance
so readily divisible as to be convenient for the purpose; but of its general
use in the way of ornament ample proof is furnished/ by Ta vernier. It
is remarkable that to the present day the people of Tibet have no coinage
of their own, but are supplied with a currency by their neighbours of
Nepal.

2 Several of the streams which take their rise in the eastern parts of
Tibet, and by their junctions form the great rivers of China, yield much
gold, which is collected from their beds in grains or small lumps. This
is principally remarked of the Kin-sha-kiang. " De tant de rivieres
qu on voit sur la carte," says Du Halde, " on ne peut dire quelles sont
celles qui fouriiissent tout 1 or qui se transporte a la Chine. ... II faut
qu on en trouve dans les sables de plusieurs de ces rivieres: il est certain
que la grande riviere Kin-cha-kian<r qui entre dans la province d Yun
nan, en charie beaucoup dans son sable, car son nom signine, fleuve a
sable d or." (Tom. iv. p. 470.) " Les Tou-fan, appelles Nan- mo, ont
une riviere qui porte le nom de Ly-nieou, dans laquelle il se trouve beau-
coup d or." Mem. cone, les Chinois, torn. xiv. p. 183.

3 In describing the manners of a certain people in the Ava or Birmah
country, Dr. F. Buchanan observes that " some of the women wore
rich strings of coral round their necks." Syme s Embassy, p. 465.

* This may appear to be an exaggeration, but other travellers describe
the dogs of Tibet as of an uncommon size. " On the left," says Turner,
" was a row of wooden cages, containing a number of huge dogs, tre
mendously fierce, strong, and noisy. They were natives of Tibet; and
whether savage by nature, or soured by confinement, they w 7 ere so im
petuously furious, that it was unsafe, unless the keepers were near, even
to approach their dens." And in another place, " The instant I entered
the gate, to my astonishment, up started a huge dog, big enough, if his

240 Travels of Marco Polo

ticularly the wild oxen, which are called beyamini, 1 and are
extremely large and fierce. Some of the best laner falcons are
bred here, and also sakers, very swift of flight, and the natives
have good sport with them. This province of Thebeth is
subject to the grand khan, as well as all the other kingdoms
and provinces that have been mentioned. Next to this is the
province of Kaindu.

CHAPTER XXXVIII

OF THE PROVINCE OF KAIN-DU

KAIN-DU is a western province, v/hich was formerly subject
to its own princes; but, since it has been brought under the
dominion of the grand khan, it is ruled by the governors
whom he appoints. We are not to understand, however, that
it is situated in the western part (of Asia), but only that it
lies westward with respect to our course from the north
eastern quarter. Its inhabitants are idolaters. It contains
many cities and castles, and the capital city, standing at the
commencement of the province, is likewise named Kain-du. 2
Near to it there is a large lake of salt water, in which are
found abundance of pearls, of a white colour, but not round. 3

courage had been equal to his size, to fight a lion." (Embassy to Tibet,
pp. 155 215.) Under this sanction our author must stand excused of
hyperbole, although some other accounts do not convey an idea of the
same magnitude. " One of them," says Captain Raper, " was a re
markably fine animal, as large as a good-sized Newfoundland dog, with
very long hair and a head resembling a mastiff s. His tail was of an
amazing length, like the brush of a fox, and curled half-way over his back.
He was however so fierce that he would allow no stranger to approach
him." Asiat. Res. vol. xi. p. 529.

1 For an account of this animal, the bos grunniens, see before, p. 136,
note 2 , p. 137, note 1 . Of the word beyamini (which does not occur either
in the Latin or the Italian epitomes) I can discover no trace. It may be
a corruption of brahmini. The animal is said to be called yak in Tar-
tary, chowri in Tibet, and suragdi in Hindustan.

2 The city that in point of situation and other circumstances appears
to answer best to this description of Kain-du, is Yung-ning-tu, which
stands on the western side of the Ya-long-kiang, in about latitude 28;
although from some resemblance of sound we might rather suppose it
to be Li-kiang-tu, a city at no great distance from the former, but
standing on the western side of the Kin-sha-kiang, above its junction
with the former river.

3 I do not find it elsewhere asserted that the lake near Yung-ning-tu
yields pearls, but they are enumerated by Martini amongst the valuable
productions of that part of China: " On tire encore de cette province
des rubis, des saphirs, des agathes . . . avec plusieurs pierres precieuses,
et des perles." (P. 194.) The fishery of pearls in a river of Eastern
Tartary is noticed by many writers.

Money Made of Salt 241

So great indeed is the quantity, that, if his majesty permitted
every individual to search for them, their value would become
trifling; but the fishery is prohibited to all who do not obtain
his licence. A mountain in the neighbourhood yields the
turquoise stone, the mines of which cannot be worked without
the same permission.

The inhabitants of this district are in the shameful and
odious habit of considering it no mark of disgrace that those
who travel through the country should have connexion with
their wives, daughters, or sisters; but, on the contrary, when
strangers arrive, each householder endeavours to conduct one
of them home with him, and, giving up all the females of the
family to him, leaves him in the situation of master of the
house, and takes his departure. And while the stranger is
in the house, he places a signal at the window, as his hat or
some other thing; and as long as this signal is seen in the
house, the husband remains absent. And this custom pre
vails throughout that province. This they do in honour of
their idols, believing that by such acts of kindness and hospi
tality to travellers a blessing is obtained, and that they shall
be rewarded with a plentiful supply of the fruits of the earth.

The money or currency they make use of is thus prepared.
Their gold is formed into small rods, and (being cut into cer
tain lengths) passes according to its weight, without any
stamp. 1 This is their greater money: the smaller is of the
following description. In this country there are salt-springs,
from which they manufacture salt by boiling it in small pans. 2
When the water has boiled for an hour, it becomes a kind of
paste, which is formed into cakes of the value of twopence
each. These, which are flat on the lower, and convex on the
upper side, are placed upon hot tiles, near a fire, in order to
dry and harden. On this latter species of money the stamp
of the grand khan is impressed, and it cannot be prepared by

1 This substitute for coin resembles the larin of the Gulf of Persia,
but with the difference, that the latter bears an imperfect stamp. In
those districts of Sumatra where gold-dust is procured, commodities of
all kinds, even so low as the value of a single grain, are purchased with
it. The forming the metal into rods, and cutting off pieces as they are
wanted for currency, may be considered as one step towards a coinage.
The Chinese of Canton cut the Spanish dollar in the same manner to
make up their fractional payments.

2 P. Martini, in describing the town of Yao-gan, in the same province,
says: " Pres de la ville il y a un puits d eau salee; on en puise pour
faire du sel, qui est tres-blanc, dont on se sert dans tout le pays, et
s appelle Pe-yen-cing, c est-a-dire le puits du sel blanc." (P. 204.)
The name of Pe-yen-cing appears in Du Halde s map of Yun-nun.

242 Travels of Marco Polo

any other than his own officers. Eighty of the cakes are made
to pass for a saggio of gold. 1 But when these are carried by
the traders amongst the inhabitants of the mountains and
other parts little frequented, they obtain a saggio of gold for
sixty, fifty, or even forty of the salt cakes, in proportion as they
find the natives less civilized, further removed from the towns,
and more accustomed to remain on the same spot; inasmuch
as people so circumstanced cannot always have a market for
their gold, musk, and other commodities. And yet even at
this rate it answers well to them who collect the gold-dust from
the beds of the rivers, as has been mentioned. The same
merchants travel in like manner through the mountainous and
other parts of the province of Thebeth, last spoken of, where
the money of salt has equal currency. Their profits are con
siderable, because these country people consume the salt with
their food, and regard it as an indispensable necessary ; whereas
the inhabitants of the cities use for the same purpose only the
broken fragments of the cakes, putting the whole cakes into
circulation as money. Here also the animals called gudderi,
which yield the musk, are taken in great numbers, and the
article is proportionably abundant. 2 Many fish, of good kinds,
are caught in the lake. In the country are found tigers, bears,
deer, stags, and antelopes. There are numerous birds also, of
various sorts. The wine is not made from grapes, but from
wheat and rice, with a mixture of spices, which is an excellent
beverage.

This province likewise produces cloves. The tree is small;
the branches and leaves resemble those of the laurel, but are
somewhat longer and narrower. Its flowers are white and
small, as are the cloves themselves, but as they ripen they
become dark-coloured. Ginger grows there and also cassia in
abundance, besides many other drugs, of which no quantity is
ever brought to Europe. 3 Upon leaving the city of Kain-du,

1 The saggio of Venice was the sixth part of an ounce, and conse
quently the cake of salt was in value the four hundred and eightieth part
of an ounce of gold, which, at the price of four pounds sterling, is exactly
twopence for the value of each cake: a coincidence that could hardly
have been expected. Its precision, however, must depend on a com
parison between the English pence and Venetian denari of that day.

2 The western parts of China and eastern of Tibet, or the country of
the Si-fan, are those in which the best musk is found. Martini, in his
Atlas Sinensis, speaks of it as the production of various places in Yun
nan.

3 This appears to be the most unqualified error that has hitherto
occurred in the course of the work, as cloves (garofali) and cassia or
cinnamon (canella) certainly do not grow in that part of the world, nor

The Province of Karaian 243

the journey is fifteen l days to the opposite boundary of the
province; in the course of which you meet with respectable
habitations, many fortified posts, and also places adapted to
hunting and fowling. The inhabitants follow the customs and
manners that have already been described. At the end of
these fifteen days, you come to the great river Brius, which
bounds the province, and in which are found large quantities
of gold-dust. 2 It discharges itself into the ocean. We shall
now leave this river, as nothing further that is worthy of obser
vation presents itself, and shall proceed to speak of the pro
vince of Karaian.

CHAPTER XXXIX

OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OF KARAIAN, AND OF YACHI ITS

PRINCIPAL CITY

HAVING passed the river above mentioned, you enter the pro
vince of Karaian, which is of such extent as to be divided
into seven governments. 3 It is situated towards the west; the

anywhere beyond the tropics. The only manner in which it is possible
to account for an assertion so contrary to fact, is by supposing that a
detached memorandum of what our author had observed in the spice
islands (which there is great probability of his having visited whilst in
the service of the emperor) has been introduced in a description where
it is entirely irrelevant.

1 [Some of the early texts have ten instead of fifteen.]
a However unlike a Chinese or Tartar word, most of the editions agree
in the orthography of the name of Brius given to this river, which seems
to be intended for the Kin-sha-kiang, or " river with the golden sands."
But if, on the other hand, Li-kiang-tu, which is situated on its south
western side, should be considered as the Kain-du of the text, it will
follow that the Brius is either the Lan-tsan-kiang, or the Nu-kiang, pre
sumed to be the Irabatty of the kingdom of Ava. " The river Nou-
kian," says Major Rennell, " little if at all inferior to the Ganges, runs
to the south, through that angle of Yunan which approaches nearest to
Bengal." (Memoir, 3d edit. p. 295.) [In the Paris Latin text it is
Ligays; and in the early Italian, Brunis.]

3 Karaian is generally understood to be the province of Yun-nan, or
rather its north-western part, which is bounded, in great measure, by
the Kin-sha-kiang. In the " Account of an Embassy to Ava," we find
mention made of a race of people whose name corresponds with that of
Karaian, and who may have been prisoners of war brought from the
neighbouring country of Yun-nan, with which the people of Ava were
often in hostility, and distributed in the latter as colonists. " He told
me," says Colonel Symes, speaking of a respectable Italian missionary,
" of a singular description of people called Carayners, or Carianers, that
inhabit different parts of the country. . . . He represented them as a
simple, innocent race, speaking a language distinct from that of

244 Travels of Marco Polo

inhabitants are idolaters ; and it is subject to the dominion of
the grand khan, who has constituted as its king his son named
Cen-Temur, a rich, magnificent, and powerful prince, endowed
with consummate wisdom and virtue, and by whom the king
dom is ruled with great justice. 1 In travelling from this river
five days journey, in a westerly direction, you pass through a
country fully inhabited, and see many castles. The inhabi
tants live upon flesh meat and upon the fruits of the earth.
Their language is peculiar to themselves, and is difficult to be
acquired. The best horses are bred in this province. 2 At the
end of these five days you arrive at its capital city, which is
named Yachi, and is large and noble. 3 In it are found mer
chants and artisans, with a mixed population, consisting of
(the native) idolaters, Nestorian Christians, and Saracens or
Mahometans; but the first is the most numerous class. The
land is fertile in rice and wheat. The people, however, do not
use wheaten bread, which they esteem unwholesome, but eat
rice; and of the other grain, with the addition of spices, they
make wine, which is clear, light-coloured, and most pleasant
to the taste. 4 For money they employ the white porcelain

Birmans, and entertaining rude notions of religion. They lead quite a
pastoral life, and are the most industrious subjects of the state. . . .
Agriculture, the care of cattle, and rearing poultry is almost their only
occupation. A great part of the provisions used in the country is raised
by the Carianers, and they particularly excel in gardening." (Pp. 207
467.) By Dr. F. Buchanan the name is written Karayn; and he speaks
also of the Ka-kiayn, " a wild people on the frontiers of China. "-
Asiat. Res. vol. vi. p. 228.

1 This prince is named in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts, Gusen-
temur; in the Basle edition, Esen-ternur; and in the Italian epitomes,
Hensen-temur. In the Tables Chronologiques of De Guignes he is
simply called Timour-khan; but one of his successors (a nephew) appears
in the same list by the name of Yeson-timour, which, whether more or
less correct in its orthography than any of the preceding, is evidently
intended for the same appellation. He was, however, the grandson, not
the son of Kublai, whom he succeeded in consequence of the premature
death of his father Chingis.

a " Ce pays," says P. Martini, produit de tres-bons chevaux, de
basse taille pour la pluspart, mais forts et hardis." (P. 196.) This is
probably the same breed as the tangun or tanyan horses of Lower Tibet,
carried from thence for sale to Hindustan. The people of Biitan in
formed Major Rennell that they brought their tanyans thirty-five days
journey to the frontier.

3 The present capital of the province of Yun-nan is a city of the same
name; but there appears reason to conclude that, although the Karaian
of our author be a part of that province, its city of Jaci, or Yachi, was
not Yun-nan- fu, but Tali-fu, now considered as the second in rank.
This, as we are informed by P. Martini, was named Ye-chu by the prince
who founded it, and Yao-cheu by a subsequent dynasty; whilst the
name of Tali was given to it by one of the Yuen or family of Kublai .

* Our author, who seems to have been of a sociable disposition, misses

The Province of Karaian 245

shell, found in the sea, and these they also wear as ornaments
about their necks. 1 Eighty of the shells are equal in value to
a saggio of silver or two Venetian groats, and eight saggi of
good silver, to one of pure gold. 2 In this country also there
are salt-springs, from which all the salt used by the inhabi
tants is procured. The duty levied on this salt produces a
large revenue to the king.

The natives do not consider it as an injury done to them,
when others have connexion with their wives, provided the
act be voluntary on the woman s part. Here there is a lake
nearly a hundred miles in circuit, in which great quantities
of various kinds of fish are caught; some of them being of a
large size. The people are accustomed to eat the undressed
flesh of fowls, sheep, oxen, and buffaloes, but cured in the
following manner. They cut the meat into very small par
ticles, and then put it into a pickle of salt, with the addition of

no opportunity of praising the good qualities of this liquor ; but modern
travellers, from prejudices perhaps, do not speak of it in such advan
tageous terms. It is a kind of beer rather than of wine.

1 These are the well-known cowries (kari) of Bengal, called by our
naturalists Cypr&ce monetcz, which in former times may have found their
way, through the province of Silhet, to the countries bordering on China,
and were probably current in Yun-nan before its mountaineers were
brought under regular subjection, and incorporated with the empire,
which was a difficult and tedious measure of policy, chiefly effected by
transplanting colonies of Chinese from the interior. "In 1764," says
Major Renriell, " I was told that Silhet (an inland province to the north
east of Bengal) produced cowries, and that they were dug up. This, of
course, I disbelieved; but when I was there in 1767 and 1768, I found
no other currency of any kind in the country; and upon an occasion when
an increase in the reyenue of the province was enforced, several boat
loads (not less than fifty tons each) were collected and sent down the
Burrampooter, to Dacca. Their accumulation was probably the conse
quence of Silhet being, at that period, the most remote district in which
they passed current, and from whence they could not find a way out but
by returning to Bengal." It is not uncommon to suppose that this
genus of shells, called porcellana, derives its appellation from the varie
gated appearance of its polished coat, resembling the glazed earthen
ware or porcelain of China; but the early use of the word by our author
renders it more likely that the shell having already obtained the name
of porcellana (a diminutive of porco), on account of the gibbous form of
its back, the foreign ware was subsequently called porcelain in Europe,
from its possessing some of the most beautiful qualities of the shell.

2 According to this estimation, if the numbers be correct, the value of
the cowries must have been enormously increased by their carriage
from Bengal to the frontiers of China. Their average price in the
bazaar of Calcutta is said to be about five thousand for a rupee, which
may be considered as equal to three saggi of silver ; and if sold at eighty
for the saggio, the profit would consequently be at the rate of five thou
sand for two hundred and forty, or more than twenty for one. Perhaps,
therefore, instead of eighty, we should read eight hundred cowries to the
saggio, which would still leave a profit of cent, per cent.

246

Travels of Marco Polo

several of their spices. It is thus prepared for persons of the
higher class, but the poorer sort only steep it, after mincing, in
a sauce of garlic, and then eat it as if it were dressed.

CHAPTER XL

OF THE PROVINCE NAMED KARAZAN

LEAVING the city of Yachi, and travelling ten days in a
westerly direction, you reach the province of Karazan, which
is also the name of its chief city. 1 The inhabitants are idol
aters. The country belongs to the dominion of the grand
khan, and the royal functions are exercised by his son, named
Kogatin. 2 Gold is found in the rivers, both in small particles
and in lumps; and there are also veins of it in the mountains.
In consequence of the large quantity obtained, they give a
saggio of gold for six saggi of silver. They likewise use the
before-mentioned porcelain shells in currency; which, how
ever, are not found in this part of the world, but are brought
from India. As I have said before, these people never take
virgins for their wives.

Here are seen huge serpents, ten paces in length, and ten
spans in the girt of the body. At the fore part, near the head,
they have two short legs, having three claws like those of a
tiger, with eyes larger than a fourpenny loaf (pane da quattro
denari) and very glaring. The jaws are wide enough to swallow
a man, the teeth are large and sharp, and their whole appear
ance is so formidable, that neither man, nor any kind of animal,
can approach them without terror. 3 Others are met with of a

1 This name of Karazan, which a Chinese might be supposed to pro
nounce Ka-la-shan, seems to be only that of another portion of the pro
vince of Yun-nan; as the places mentioned in the subsequent chapter
unquestionably are: but so imperfect is our information respecting this
part of the country, that the means are wanting by which its particular
situation might be ascertained. It should be remarked, at the same
time, that the name of Karazan, as distinct from that of Karaian, does
not occur either in the Latin or in the early epitomes; all the circum
stances related in this chapter being there considered as applying to the
last-mentioned province or district.

2 The name of Kogatin does not appear in the list of the legitimate
sons of Kublai ; but he had many others. The orthography, however, is
more than usually uncertain. In the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts the
name is written Cogaam; in the old Latin edition it is Cogatuy; in the
Basle, Cogracam (Cogra-khan) ; and in the early Italian epitomes,
Cocagio.

3 This distorted account of the alligator or crocodile is less creditable
to our author s fidelity than any other of his natural history descriptions,
although generally more or less defective.

Great Serpents of Karazan 247

smaller size, being eight, six, or five paces long; and the follow
ing method is used for taking them. In the day-time, by
reason of the great heat, they lurk in caverns, from whence,
at night, they issue to seek their food, and whatever beast they
meet with and can lay hold of, whether tiger, wolf, or any other,
they devour; after which they drag themselves towards some
lake, spring of water, or river, in order to drink. By their
motion in this way along the shore, and their vast weight, they
make a deep impression, as if a heavy beam had been drawn
along the sands. Those whose employment it is to hunt them
observe the track by which they are most frequently accus
tomed to go, and fix into the ground several pieces of wood,
armed with sharp iron spikes, which they cover with the sand
in such a manner as not to be perceptible. When therefore
the animals make their way towards the places they usually
haunt, they are wounded by these instruments, and speedily
killed. 1 The crows, as soon as they perceive them to be dead,
set up their scream ; and this serves as a signal to the hunters,
who advance to the spot, and proceed to separate the skin
from the flesh, taking care immediately to secure the gall,
which is most highly esteemed in medicine. In cases of the
bite of a mad dog, a pennyweight of it, dissolved in wine, is
administered. It is also useful in accelerating parturition,
when the labour pains of women have come on. A small
quantity of it being applied to carbuncles, pustules, or other
eruptions on the body, they are presently dispersed ; and it is
efficacious in many other complaints. The flesh also of the
animal is sold at a dear rate, being thought to have a higher
flavour than other kinds of meat, and by all persons it is
esteemed a delicacy. 2 In this province the horses are of a
large size, and whilst young, are carried for sale to India. It
is the practice to deprive them of one joint of the tail, in order
to prevent them from lashing it from side to side, and to occa
sion its remaining pendent; as the whisking it about, in riding,

1 The natives of India are particularly ingenious in their contrivances
for destroying beasts of prey, particularly the tiger, which is sometimes
made to fall upon sharp-pointed stakes, after walking up an inclined
plane; but the alligator is most commonly taken in the water, with a
large hook.

2 The flesh of the guana or inguana, an animal intermediate in size
between the lizard and the alligator, I have known to be eaten both by
Chinese and Europeans, and by the former at least to be considered as
a delicacy. I cannot assert the same of the alligator, but in a book of
Natural History I read that " the Africans and Indians eat its flesh,
which is white, and of a kind of perfumed (musky) flavour."

248

Travels of Marco Polo

appears to them a vile habit. 1 These people ride with long
stirrups, as the French do in our part of the world; whereas
the Tartars, and almost all other people, wear them short, for
the more conveniently using the bow; as they rise in their
stirrups above the horse, when they shoot their arrows. They
have complete armour of buffalo-leather, and carry lances,
shields, and cross-bows. All their arrows are poisoned. I was
assured, as a certain fact, that many persons, and especially
those who harbour bad designs, always carry poison about
them, with the intention of swallowing it, in the event of their
being apprehended for any delinquency, and exposed to the
torture, that, rather than surfer it, they may effect their own
destruction. But their rulers, who are aware of this practice,
are always provided with the dung of dogs, which they oblige
the accused to swallow immediately after, as it occasions their
vomiting up the poison, 2 and thus an antidote is ready against
the arts of these wretches. Before the time of their becoming
subject to the dominion of the grand khan, these people were
addicted to the following brutal custom. When any stranger
of superior quality, who united personal beauty with distin
guished valour, happened to take up his abode at the house of
one of them, he was murdered during the night; not for the
sake of his money, but in order that the spirit of the deceased,
endowed with his accomplishments and intelligence, might
remain with the family, and that through the efficacy of such
an acquisition, all their concerns might prosper. Accordingly
the individual was accounted fortunate who possessed in this
manner the soul of any noble personage; and many lost their
lives in consequence. But from the time of his majesty s
beginning to rule the country, he has taken measures for sup
pressing the horrid practice, and from the effect of severe
punishments that have been inflicted, it has ceased to exist.

1 It appears from hence that the practice of docking the tails of horses,
by separating one or more of the vertebrae, which has become so common
in England, existed many hundred years ago amongst the people of Yun
nan, in the remotest part of China.

2 Such might have been the vulgar belief respecting the substance
employed as an emetic on these occasions, although perhaps with as
little foundation as the idea entertained by the common people in Eng
land that ipecacuanha is the powder of human bones.

The Province of Kardandan 249

CHAPTER XLI

OF THE PROVINCE OF KARDANDAN AND THE CITY

OF VOCHANG

PROCEEDING five days journey in a westerly direction from
Karazan, you enter the province of Kardandan, belonging to
the dominion of the grand khan, and of which the principal
city is named Vochang. 1 The currency of this country is gold
by weight, and also the porcelain shells. An ounce of gold
is exchanged for five ounces of silver, and a saggio of gold for
five saggi of silver; there being no silver mines in this country,
but much gold; and consequently the merchants who import
silver obtain a large profit. Both the men and the women of
this province have the custom of covering their teeth with thin
plates of gold, which are fitted with great nicety to the shape
of the teeth, and remain on them continually. The men also
form dark stripes or bands round their arms and legs, by
puncturing them in the following manner. They have five
needles joined together, which they press into the flesh until
blood is drawn; and they then rub the punctures with a black
colouring matter, which leaves an indelible mark. To bear
these dark stripes is considered as an ornamental and honour
able distinction. 2 They pay little attention to anything but
horsemanship, the sports of the chase, and whatever belongs to

1 What is here named the province of Kardandan, is in the B.M. and
Berlin manuscripts, and old Latin edition, written Ardandam, in the
Basle, Arcladam, and in the epitomes Caridi; none of which can be dis
covered in Du Halde s map; but from the name of the chief city, which
immediately follows, it is evident that the places spoken of are still
within the limits of the modern province of Yun-nan. The name, indeed,
of Vochang (or Vociam in the old Italian orthography), would have been
equally unascertainable with that of the province, but that we are assisted
in this instance by the readings of some of the other versions. In the
early Latin edition the word in Uncian, in the Basle, Unchiam, and in
the early edition of Venice, Nocian, which point out the place to be the
city of Yung-chang, in the western part of Yun-nan.

2 " D autres se marquent diverses figures sur leur visage," says Martini,
speaking of the inhabitants of Yung-chang, " le percant avec une aiguille,
et appliquant du noir, comme plusieurs Indiens ont accoustume de
faire." Accounts of this practice of tatooing have been rendered familiar
to us by the voyages to the South Sea islands; but it prevails also
amongst the Birmah people of the kingdom of Ava, immediately con
tiguous to Yun-nan. The custom is noticed by the old writers, and
confirmed by the testimony of Colonel Symes, who says: "They (the
Birmans) tatoo their thighs and arms into various fantastic shapes and
figures, which they believe operate as a charm against the weapons of
their enemies." -Embassy to Ava, p, 312.

250 Travels of Marco Polo

the use of arms and a military life; leaving the entire manage
ment of their domestic concerns to their wives, who are assisted
in their duties by slaves, either purchased or made prisoners in
war.

These people have the following singular usage. As soon
as a woman has been delivered of a child, and, rising from her
bed, has washed and swathed the infant, her husband im
mediately takes the place she has left, has the child laid beside
him, and nurses it for forty days. In the meantime, the
friends and relations of the family pay to him their visits of
congratulation; whilst the woman attends to the business of
the house, carries victuals and drink to the husband in his bed,
and suckles the infant at his side. These people eat their meat
raw, or prepared in the manner that has been described, and
along with it eat rice. Their wine is manufactured from rice,
with a mixture of spices, and is a good beverage.

In this district they have neither temples nor idols, but pay
their worship to the elder or ancestor of the family, from
whom, they say, as they derive their existence, so to him they
are indebted for all that they possess. 1 They have no know
ledge of any kind of writing, nor is this to be wondered at, con
sidering the rude nature of the country, which is a mountainous
tract, covered with the thickest forests. During the summer
season, the atmosphere is so gloomy and unwholesome, that
merchants and other strangers are obliged to leave the dis
trict, in order to escape from death. 2 When the natives have

1 This appears to have reference to the extraordinary respect known
to be paid by the Chinese to their parents, or to the veneration, approach
ing to an idolatrous worship, in which they hold the manes of their an
cestors a superstition not only unconnected with the doctrines of the
two prevailing sects, but religiously observed by those who hold the
adoration of images in abhorrence. It seems probable that instead of
" il piu vecchio di casa," or according to the epitome, " lo mazor de la
casa," " the eldest person of the family," our author meant " the common
ancestor; " for although the several descendants might subsist upon the
patriarchal bounty of the former, they cannot be understood to have
derived their possessions from him during his lifetime.

2 Districts lying near the base of great ranges of mountains, and
especially within the. tropical latitudes, are always found to be unhealthy.
" At the foot of the Bootan mountains," says Turner, " a plain extends
lor about thirty miles in breadth, choked, rather than clothed, with the
most luxuriant vegetation. The exhalations necessarily arising from
the multitude of springs which the vicinity of the mountains produces,
are collected and confined by these almost impervious woods, and gene
rate an atmosphere through which no traveller ever passed with im
punity." (Embassy, p. 21.) This pestilential quality of the air extends
westward, through what is called the Morung country, and by analogy
may be supposed to prevail on the eastern side also, the Yun-nan moun

Practices of the Sorcerers of Kardandan 251

transactions of business with each other, which require them
to execute any obligation for the amount of a debt or credit,
their chief takes a square piece of wood, and divides it in two.
Notches are then cut on it, denoting the sum in question, and
each party receives one of the corresponding pieces, as is
practised in respect to our tallies. Upon the expiration of the
term, and payment made by the debtor, the creditor delivers
up his counterpart, and both remain satisfied.

Neither in this province, nor in the cities of Kaindu,
Vochang, or Yachi, are to be found persons professing the art
of physic. When a person of consequence is attacked with a
disorder, his family send for those sorcerers who offer sacrifices
to the idols, to whom the sick person gives an account of the
nature of his complaint. The sorcerers thereupon give direc
tions for the attendance of persons who perform on a variety
of loud instruments, in order that they may dance and sing
hymns in honour and praise of their idols; and which they
continue to do, until the evil spirit has taken possession of one
of them, when their musical exertions cease. They then
inquire of the person so possessed the cause of the man s indis
position, and the means that should be used for effecting his
cure. The evil spirit answers by the mouth of him into whose
body he has entered, that the sickness has been occasioned by
an offence given to a certain deity. Upon which the sorcerers
address their prayers to that deity, beseeching him to pardon
the sinner, on the condition that when cured he shall offer a
sacrifice of his own blood. But if the demon perceives that
there is no prospect of a recovery, he pronounces the deity to
be so grievously offended that no sacrifice can appease him.
If, on the contrary, he judges that a cure is likely to take place,
he requires that an offering be made of so many sheep with
black heads; that so many sorcerers, with their wives, be
assembled, and that the sacrifice be performed by their hands ;
by which means, he says, the favour of the deity may be con
ciliated. The relations comply immediately with all that has
been demanded, the sheep are slain, their blood is sprinkled
towards the heavens, the sorcerers (male and female) light up
and perfume with incense the whole house of the sick person,
making a smoke with wood of aloes. They cast into the air the
water in which the flesh has been seethed, together with some

tains being of great height, whilst the great Nu-kiang, said to be navigable
between that province and Ava, must flow chiefly through a plain and
comparatively low country.

252 Travels of Marco Polo

of the liquor brewed with spices; and then laugh, sing, and
dance about, with the idea of doing honour to their idol or
divinity. They next inquire of the demoniac whether, by the
sacrifice that has been made, the idol is satisfied, or if it is his
command that another be yet performed. When the answer
is, that the propitiation has been satisfactory, the sorcerers of
both sexes, who had not ceased their songs, thereupon seat
themselves at the table, and proceed to feast on the meat that
had been offered in sacrifice, and to drink the spiced liquor, of
which a libation had been made, with signs of great hilarity.
Having finished their meal, and received their fees, they return
to their homes ; and if, through God s providence, the patient
recovers, they attribute his cure to the idol for whom the sacri
fice was performed ; but if he happens to die, they then declare
that the rites had been rendered ineffective by those who
dressed the victuals having presumed to taste them before the
deity s portion had been presented to him. It must be under
stood that ceremonies of this kind are not practised upon the
illness of every individual, but only perhaps once or twice in the
course of a month, for noble or wealthy personages. They are
common, however, to all the idolatrous inhabitants of the whole
provinces of Cathay and Manji, amongst whom a physician is
a rare character. And thus do the demons sport with the
blindness of these deluded and wretched people. 1

CHAPTER XLII

OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE GRAND KHAN EFFECTED THE
CONQUEST OF THE KINGDOM OF MIEN AND BANGALA

BEFORE we proceed further (in describing the country), we
shall speak of a memorable battle that was fought in this
kingdom of Vochang (Unchang, or Yun-chang). It happened
that in the year 1272 the grand khan sent an army into the
countries of Vochang and Karazan, for their protection and
defence against any attack that foreigners might attempt to
make ; 2 for at this period he had not as yet appointed his own

1 The sorcerers or wizards here spoken of are evidently the shamans
or juggling priests of Fo, who are met with chiefly in the less civilized
regions of Tartary, but who probably find their way into ail parts of the

Chinese empire.

2 This date of 1272 appears not omy in Ramusio s text, but in that of
the Berlin manuscript and of the older Latin edition; whilst in the Basle
copy (followed by Miiller) it is 1282. Some countenance is given to the
latter date by a passage in L Histoire gen. de la Chine, torn. ix. p. 411.

Great Battle of Vochang 253

sons to the governments, which it was afterwards his policy to
do; as in the instance of Cen-temur, for whom those places
were erected into a principality. When the king of Mien 1
and Bangala, 2 in India, who was powerful in the number of
his subjects, in extent of territory, and in wealth, heard that
an army of Tartars had arrived at Vochang, he took the resolu
tion of advancing immediately to attack it, in order that by
its destruction the grand khan should be deterred from again
attempting to station a force upon the borders of his dominions.
For this purpose he assembled a very large army, including a
multitude of elephants (an animal with which his country
abounds), upon whose backs were placed battlements or castles,
of wood, capable of containing to the number of twelve or
sixteen in each. With these, and a numerous army of horse
and foot, he took the road to Vochang, where the grand khan s
army lay, and encamping at no great distance from it, intended
to give his troops a few days of rest. As soon as the approach
of the king of Mien, with so great a force, was known to
Nestardin, 3 who commanded the troops of the grand khan,
although a brave and able officer, he felt much alarmed, not
having under his orders more than twelve thousand men
(veterans, indeed, and valiant soldiers); whereas the enemy
had sixty thousand, besides the elephants armed as has been
described. He did not, however, betray any sign of appre
hension, but descending into the plain of Vochang, 4 took a
position in which his flank was covered by a thick wood of
large trees, whither, in case of a furious charge by the elephants,
which his troops might not be able to sustain, they could retire,

1 By P. Gaubil (or his commentator, P. Souciet), De Guignes, Grosier
and D Anville, Mien has been considered as the name of the country of
Pegu, but it is plainly meant for the Birmah country, or, as we usually
term it, the kingdom of Ava, which nearly borders on the province of
Yun-nan, whilst the other lies far to the southward, and is unconnected
with any part of the Chinese territory. The name by which the Birmahs
call their own country is M yam-ma ; by the Chinese writers it is named
Mien-lien.

* In the Basle edition the words are, " rex Mien et rex Bangala," imply
ing two confederated sovereigns, but the whole context shows that only
one personage is intended, who might at that period have styled himself
king of Bangala as well as of Mien, from the circumstance of his having
conquered some eastern district belonging to Bengal, from which the
country of Ava is separated only by forests.

3 This name, which in Ramusio s version is Nestardin, is elsewhere
written Neschardyn, Noscardyn, and Nastardyri; which are all corrup
tions of the common Mahometan name of Nasr-eddin.

4 This we may presume to be the plain through which the Irabatty,
(otherwise written Irawaddy,) or great river of Ava runs, in the upper
part of its course.

254 Travels of Marco Polo

and from thence, in security, annoy them with their arrows.
Calling together the principal officers of his army, he exhorted
them not to display less valour on the present occasion than
they had done in all their preceding engagements, reminding
them that victory did not depend upon the number of men,
but upon courage and discipline. He represented to them that
the troops of the king of Mien and Bangala were raw and un
practised in the art of war, not having had the opportunities of
acquiring experience that had fallen to their lot; that instead
of being discouraged by the superior number of their foes, they
ought to feel confidence in their own valour so often put to
the test; that their very name was a subject of terror, not
merely to the enemy before them, but to the whole world;
and he concluded by promising to lead them to certain victory.
Upon the king of Mien s learning that the Tartars had de
scended into the plain, he immediately put his army in motion,
took up his ground at the distance of about a mile from the
enemy, and made a disposition of his force, placing the
elephants in the front, and the cavalry and infantry, in two
extended wings, in their rear, but leaving between them a con
siderable interval. Here he took his own station, and proceeded
to animate his men and encourage them to fight valiantly,
assuring them of victory, as well from the superiority of their
numbers, being four to one, as from their formidable body of
armed elephants, whose shock the enemy, who had never be
fore been engaged with such combatants, could by no means
resist. Then giving orders for sounding a prodigious number
of warlike instruments, he advanced boldly with his whole
army towards that of the Tartars, which remained firm,
making no movement, but suffering them to approach their
entrenchments. They then rushed out with great spirit and
the utmost eagerness to engage; but it was soon found that the
Tartar horses, unused to the sight of such huge animals, with
their castles, were terrified, and wheeling about endeavoured
to fly; nor could their riders by any exertions restrain them,
whilst the king, with the whole of his forces, was every moment
gaining ground. As soon as the prudent commander per
ceived this unexpected disorder, without losing his presence of
mind, he instantly adopted the measure of ordering his men to
dismount and their horses to be taken into the wood, where
they were fastened to the trees. When dismounted, the men,
without loss of time, advanced on foot towards the line of
elephants, and commenced a brisk discharge of arrows ; whilst,

Great Battle of Vochang 255

on the other side, those who were stationed in the castles, and
the rest of the king s army,, shot volleys in return with great
activity; but their arrows did not make the same impression
as those of the Tartars, whose bows were drawn with a stronger
arm. So incessant were the discharges of the latter, and all
their weapons (according to the instructions of their com
mander) being directed against the elephants, these were
soon covered with arrows, and, suddenly giving way, fell back
upon their own people in the rear, who were thereby thrown
into confusion. It soon became impossible for their drivers
to manage them, either by force or address. Smarting under
the pain of their wounds, and terrified by the shouting of the
assailants, they were no longer governable, but without guid
ance or control ran about in all directions, until at length, im
pelled by rage and fear, they rushed into a part of the wood not
occupied by the Tartars. The consequence of this was, that
from the closeness of the branches of large trees, they broke,
with loud crashes, the battlements or castles that were upon
their backs, and involved in the destruction those who sat upon
them. Upon seeing the rout of the elephants the Tartars
acquired fresh courage, and filing off by detachments, with
perfect order and regularity, they remounted their horses, and
joined their several divisions, when a sanguinary and dreadful
combat was renewed. On the part of the king s troops there
was no want of valour, and he himself went amongst the ranks
entreating them to stand firm, and not to be alarmed by the
accident that had befallen the elephants. But the Tartars,
by their consummate skill in archery, were too powerful for
them, and galled them the more exceedingly, from their not
being provided with such armour as was worn by the former,
The arrows having been expended on both sides, the men
grasped their s words and iron maces, and violently encoun
tered each other. Then in an instant were to be seen manv
horrible wounds, limbs dismembered, and multitudes falling
to the ground, mained and dying; with such effusion of blood
as was dreadful to behold. So great also was the clangour
of arms, and such the shoutings and the shrieks, that the noise
seemed to ascend to the skies. The king of Mien, acting as
became a valiant chief, was present wherever the greatest
danger appeared, animating his soldiers, and beseeching them
to maintain their ground with resolution. He ordered fresh
squadrons from the reserve to advance to the support of those
that were exhausted; but perceiving at length that it was

256

Travels of Marco Polo

impossible any longer to sustain the conflict or to withstand the
impetuosity of the Tartars, the greater part of his troops being
either killed or wounded, and all the field covered with the
carcases of men and horses, whilst those who survived were
beginning to give way, he also found himself compelled to take
to flight with the wreck of his army, numbers of whom were
afterwards slain in the pursuit.

The losses in this battle, which lasted from the morning till
noon, were severely felt on both sides; but the Tartars were
finally victorious ; a result that was materially to be attributed
to the troops of the king of Mien and Bangala not wearing
armour as the Tartars did, and to their elephants, especially
those of the foremost line, being equally without that kind of
defence, which, by enabling them to sustain the first discharges
of the enemy s arrows, would have allowed them to break his
ranks and throw him into disorder. A point perhaps of still
greater importance is, that the king ought not to have made
his attack on the Tartars in a position where their flank was
supported by a wood, but should have endeavoured to draw
them into the open country, where they could not have re
sisted the first impetuous onset of the armed elephants, and
where, by extending the cavalry of his two wings, he might
have surrounded them. The Tartars having collected their
force after the slaughter of the enemy, returned towards the
wood into which the elephants had fled for shelter, in order to
take possession of them, where they found that the men who
had escaped from the overthrow were employed in cutting
down trees and barricading the passages, with the intent of
defending themselves. But their ramparts were soon de
molished by the Tartars, who slew many of them, and with the
assistance of the persons accustomed to the management of
the elephants, they possessed themselves of these to the number
of two hundred or more. From the period of this battle the
grand khan has always chosen to employ elephants in his
armies, which before that time he had not done. The conse
quences of the victory were, that he acquired possession of the
whole of the territories of the king of Bangala and Mien, and
annexed them to his dominions*

An Uninhabited Region 257

CHAPTER XLIII

OF AN UNINHABITED REGION, AND OF THE KINGDOM OF

MIEN

LEAVING the province of Kardandan, you enter upon a vast
descent, which you travel without variation for two days and
a half, in the course of which no habitations are to be found.
You then reach a spacious plain, 1 whereon, three days in every
week, a number of trading people assemble, many of whom
come down from the neighbouring mountains, bringing their
gold to be exchanged for silver, which the merchants who
repair thither from distant countries carry with them for this
purpose; 2 and one saggio of gold is given for five of silver.
The inhabitants are not allowed to be the exporters of their
own gold, but must dispose of it to the merchants, who furnish
them with such articles as they require; and as none but the
natives themselves can gain access to the places of their resi
dence, so high and strong are the situations, and so difficult of
approach, it is on this account that the transactions of business
are conducted in the plain. Beyond this, in a southerly
direction, towards the confines of India, lies the city of Mien. 3

1 This must be understood of the plain at the foot of the Yun-nan
mountains, already spoken of, from whence the river is said to be navi
gable to Ava.

2 In consequence of the strict regulations of the Chinese with respect
to the admission of strangers within the bounds of the empire, it becomes
necessary for the purposes of trade or exchange of commodities, that
fairs or markets should be held on the frontiers, where the merchants
arrive at stated times with their goods. The principal article of export
from Ava," says Symes, " is cotton. This commodity is transported
up the Irrawaddy in large boats, as far as Bamoo, where it is bartered at
the common jee or mart, with Chinese merchants, and conve3 :r ed by the
latter, partly by land and partly by water, into the Chinese dominions."
(P. 325.) Thus also at the village of Topa, near Sining, on the borders
of Shen-si; " On y trouye," says Du Halde, " presque tout ce qu on pen
souhaiter de marchandises etrangeres et de la Chine, diverses drogues,
du saffran, des dattes, du caffe, etc." -Tom. i. p. 40.

3 In this place there is a remarkable variation in the early Italian
epitome from all the other versions, and being of some importance in a
geographical point of view, I shall give the passage in its own words:

1 Quando 1 huomo se parti de la provincia de Caraian ello trova una
grande desmontada par laquale ello va doe zornade pur descendendo^ in
laqual non e habitatione alchuna ma sige (glie) uno logo in loqual se fa
festa Ire di a la setemena. Ivi se da uno sazo doro per v. dargento.
E quando 1 homo e andado quelle v. zornade ello trova la provincia de
Michai laquale confina con 1 India et e verso lo mezo di. L homo va ben
xv. zornade per salvazi paesi. Ivi se trova molti elephanti e unicorni
e molte bestie salvaze e non ge (glie) niuna habitation. Quando

I

2 5 8

Travels of Marco Polo

The journey occupies fifteen days, through a country much
depopulated, and forests abounding with elephants, rhino
ceroses, and other wild beasts, where there is not the appear
ance of any habitation.

CHAPTER XLIV

OF THE CITY OF MIEN, AND OF A GRAND SEPULCHRE OF

ITS KING

AFTER the journey of fifteen days that has been mentioned,
you reach the city of Mien, which is large, magnificent, and
the capital of the kingdom. 1 The inhabitants are idolaters,
and have a language peculiar to themselves. It is related
that there formerly reigned in this country a rich and power
ful monarch, who, when his death was drawing near, gave
orders for erecting on the place of his interment, at the head
and foot of the sepulchre, two pyramidal towers, entirely of
marble, ten paces in height, of a proportionate bulk, and each
terminating with a ball. 2 One of these pyramids was covered
with a plate of gold an inch in thickness, so that nothing

I homo e andado xv. zornade ello trpva una cita la qual ha nome Mien."
(Capitoli xc. et xci.) From hence it is to be understood that upon de
scending from the heights of Karaian or Yun-nan, you do not imme
diately enter the country of Mien or Ava Proper, but after a journey of
five days reach the province of Michai, which we may reasonably suppose
to be the Meckley of our maps ; and from thence, after travelling fifteen
days through forests, arrive at the capital. The space between Bengal
and China," says Major Rennell, " is occupied by the province of Meckley,
and other districts, subject to the king of Burmah or Ava: " and again;
" The king of Burmah, whose reputed capital is Ava, and from whence
the whole kingdom, though erroneously, is often denominated, is said
to possess not only the country of Meckley, in addition to those of Pegu
and Burmah, but also the whole tract which lies on the north of it, be
tween China, Thibet, and Assam." -Mem. 3d edit. pp. 295 297. The
mention of this intermediate province adds much to the consistency of
the narrative.

1 The present capital, called Ummerapoora or Amrapura, is a city of
modern date. This of Mien must therefore either have been the old
city of Ava, now in ruins, or some one of earlier times, the seat of govern
ment having been often changed. " Pagahm," says Symes, " is said to
have been the residence of forty-five successive monarchs, and was aban
doned 500 years ago, in consequence of a divine admonition: whatever
may be its true history, it certainly was once a place of no ordinary
splendour." (P. 269.) The coincidence of dates is here remarkable, as
the elapsed period of five centuries would place the ruin of Pagahm in
1295, or just about the time of the Mungal conquest.

a Temples of a pyramidal form, both with square and circular bases,
are found wherever the religion of Buddha prevails. Many of these, on
a magnificent scale, are described by Colonel Symes, in the course of his
journey to Ava.

The City of Mien 259

besides the gold was visible; and the other with a plate of
silver, of the same thickness. Around the balls were sus
pended small bells of gold and of silver, which sounded when
put in motion by the wind. 1 The whole formed a splendid
object. The tomb was in like manner covered with a plate,
partly of gold and partly of silver. This the king commanded
to be prepared for the honour of his soul, and in order that
his memory might not perish. The grand khan, having re
solved upon taking possession of this city, sent thither a
valiant officer to effect it, and the army, at its own desire,
was accompanied by some of the jugglers or sorcerers, of
whom there were always a great number about the court. 2
When these entered the city, they observed the two pyramids
so richly ornamented, but would not meddle with them until
his majesty s pleasure respecting them should be known.
The grand khan, upon being informed that they had been
erected in pious memory of a former king, would not suffer
them to be violated nor injured in the smallest degree; the
Tartars being accustomed to consider as a heinous sin the
removal of any article appertaining to the dead. 3 In this
country were found many elephants, large and handsome
wild oxen, 4 with stags, fallow deer, and other animals in great
abundance.

1 " Round the lower limb of the tee" says Symes, " are appended a
number of bells, which, agitated by the wind, make a continual jingling."
P. 189.

2 In Ramusio s text these persons who accompanied the army are
styled " giocolari overo bufforii, but in that of the early epitome, " zugo-
lari e incantadori" which gives an intelligible sense; as we know, both
from preceding passages of the work, arid from general information of
the manners of these countries, that diviners or religious jugglers have
always formed a part of the staff of a military chief, who is either in
fluenced by their prognostications, or makes them subservient to his
designs. Purchas in his version calls them " jesters," but in Harris s
collection of voyages, edited by Campbell, and in some modern publi
cations, the word " cavalry is discreetly substituted, as being more
appropriate. There appears, however, to be something defective in the
story, and that a sentence has been omitted, which should follow that
in which the appointment of a valiant officer is mentioned. [In the
Paris Latin text they are called histriones and joculatores.]

3 This laudable respect shown by the Tartar tribes to the sanctity of
the grave, has been the occasion of the Russians discovering in the
burial places of these people a great number and variety of undisturbed
articles, as well as large deposits of the precious metals, which former
conquerors had not presumed to violate.

4 This is not the chowry- tailed ox, yak, or bos gy -mini ens, described
by Turner, and mentioned by our author in a former chapter, which
is the native of a colder region, but the gayal, or bos gavceus, an animal
found wild in the provinces on the eastern side of Bengal, and fully
described in vol. viii. of the Asiat. Researches.

260 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XLV

OF THE PROVINCE OF BANGALA

THE province of Bangala is situated on the southern confines
of India/ and was (not yet) brought under the dominion of
the grand khan at the time of Marco Polo s residence at his
court; (although) the operations against it occupied his army
for a considerable period, the country being strong and its king
powerful, as has been related. It has its peculiar language.
The people are worshippers of idols, and amongst them there
are teachers, at the head of schools for instruction in the prin
ciples of their idolatrous religion and of necromancy, whose
doctrine prevails amongst all ranks, including the nobles and
chiefs of the country. 2 Oxen are found here almost as tall as
elephants, but not equal to them in bulk. 3 The inhabitants
live upon flesh, milk, and rice, of which they have abundance. 4

1 The name of Bangala, as applied in this place to the kingdom of
Bengal, approaches nearer to the genuine pronunciation and ortho
graphy (Bangalah) than that in which we are accustomed to write the
word.

8 This passage has an obvious reference to the Hindu schools of philo
sophy, where the doctrine of the Vedas and Sastras is explained by
learned panditas and gurus, in all the principal cities of Bengal and Hin
dustan. The ch handas, tantra sastra, or art of necromancy, is considered
by these people as one of the six great " angas or bodies of learning."

8 If it were fair to justify one exaggeration by another, the authority
of a " British officer," quoted by Kerr and Turton in their translation
of the Systema Nature of Linna3us, might be adduced in support of
our author s account of the oxen of Bengal; the former of whom was
led to describe and figure, under the name of bos arnee, an animal four
teen feet in height, (but reduced by the latter to eight feet,) said to have
been met in the country above Bengal; but which proves to be only the
wild buffalo, there called arna. The buffalo, however, or bos bubalus, " a
very large and formidable animal," is afterwards distinctly mentioned
by our author; and what is here said can apply to no other than the
gayal, or bos gav&iis, which abounds in some of the eastern districts, and
can only in a figurative sense be compared to the elephant.

4 Rice and milk are chief articles of sustenance with the natives of
Bengal; but, although many of their castes are free from scruples about
eating any kind of meat excepting beef, the assertion is too strong that
ilesh is their ordinary food. It is evident, indeed, that our author s
ideas of the country are formed upon what he had seen or learned of
the people inhabiting the mountainous districts by which Bengal is
bounded on the eastern side, where the manners are widely different
from those which prevail on the banks of the Ganges, and where the
gayal-ox, as well as deer, wild hogs, and wild animals in general, are
commonly eaten as food. The nature and extent of the scruples of
those amongst the mountaineers who profess Hinduism, may be
judged of from the following passages in a paper by Mr. Colebrooke,
in the Asiatic Researches: " The Hindus in this province (Chatgoan

The Province of Kangigu 261

Much cotton is grown in the country, and trade flourishes.
Spikenard, galangal, ginger, sugar, and many sorts of drugs
are amongst the productions of the soil ; 1 to purchase which
the merchants from various parts of India resort thither.
They likewise make purchases of eunuchs, of whom there are
numbers in the country, as slaves ; for all the prisoners taken
in war are presently emasculated; and as every prince and
person of rank is desirous of having them for the custody of
their women, the merchants obtain a large profit by carrying
them to other kingdoms, and there disposing of them. 2 This
province is thirty days 7 journey in extent, and at the eastern
extremity of it lies a country named Kangigu.

CHAPTER XLVI

OF THE PROVINCE OF KANGIGU

KANGIGU is a province situated towards the east, 3 and is
governed by a king. The people are idolaters, have a peculiar
language, and made a voluntary submission to the grand khan,
to whom they pay an annual tribute. The king is so devoted

or Chittagong) will not kill the gabay, which they hold in equal
veneration with the cow ; but the asl-gdyal, or selo i, they hunt and kill,
as they do the wild buffalo. The animal here alluded to is another species
of gaydl found wild in the hills."

1 These are well known productions of Bengal and the adjoining pro
vinces; particularly the article of sugar, which is extensively cultivated,
and exported to many parts of Asia, as well as to Europe.

a That the courts and harems of India abounded with eunuchs, who
often attained to the highest offices of the state, appears from all the
histories of that country; but it is not generally understood that any
number of them were supplied from Bengal. It must be observed,
indeed, that, with the exception of a few meagre notices in Ferishta s
history, we are ignorant of the affairs, and more especially of the manners,
of the people of that country in the thirteenth century; and even the
dates of inscriptions on some of the principal buildings in Gaur, or Luk-
nauti, considered as its ancient capital, are no earlier than the fifteenth.
From the writings of Barbosa, however, which were finished in 1516,
and of the genuineness of which no well-informed reader can doubt, we
learn that in his time the practice of emasculation prevailed there,
although not amongst the Hindu natives, to whose ideas it would be
abhorrent.

3 The country here named Kangigu, in the older Latin version Kan-
ziga, and in the early Italian epitome Cargingu, [in the Latin, Talugigla,]
appearing to lie in the route from the eastern part of Bengal towards the
northern part of the Birmah country, may be either the Cach har situated
between Silhet and Meckley, or else Kassay, between the latter and Ava.
The terminating syllable gu may probably be the Chinese word Uoue, or
kue, kingdom," which will be seen in the Jesuits map to prevail in
that quarter.

262 Travels of Marco Polo

to sensual pleasures, that he has about four hundred wives;
and when he hears of any handsome woman, he sends for her,
and adds her to the number. 1 Gold is found here in large
quantities, and also many kinds of drugs; but, being an inland
country, distant from the sea, there is little opportunity of
vending them. There are elephants in abundance, and other
beasts. The inhabitants live upon flesh, rice, and milk. They
have no wine made from grapes, but prepare it from rice and a
mixture of drugs. Both men and women have their bodies
punctured all over, in figures of beasts and birds ; and there are
among them practitioners whose sole employment it is to trace
out these ornaments with the point of a needle, upon the
hands, the legs, and the breast. When a black colouring stuff
has been rubbed over these punctures, it is impossible, either
by water or otherwise, to efface the marks. The man or woman
who exhibits the greatest profusion of these figures, is esteemed
the most handsome.

CHAPTER XLVII

OF THE PROVINCE OF AMU

AMU, also, is situated towards the east, 2 and its inhabitants are
subjects of the grand khan. They are idolaters, and live upon
the flesh of their cattle and the fruits of the earth. They have
a peculiar language. The country produces many horses and
oxen, which are sold to the itinerant merchants, and conveyed
to India. Buffaloes also, as well as oxen, are numerous, 3 in
consequence of the extent and excellence of the pastures.
Both men and women wear rings, of gold and silver, upon their
wrists, arms, and legs; but those of the females are the more
costly. The distance between this province and that of
Kangigu is twenty-five 4 days journey, and thence to Bangala

1 In Mr. Colebrooke s paper (referred to in note 4 , p. 260) the raja of
Cach har is spoken of as a Cshatriya of the Suryabansi race. In former
times his territory may have been more extensive, and his revenue more
adequate to the maintenance of a harem of such magnitude, than they
are at the present day. The epitome reduces the number to one hundred :
" Lo re ha ben cento moiere."

8 Amu appears to correspond in situation with Bamu, which is de
scribed by Symes as a frontier province between the kingdom of the
Birmahs and Yun-nan in China.

3 These are the bos bubalus and 605 gavceus. See note 3 , p. 260.

[The Paris Latin text reads fifteen.]

Province of Tholoman 263

is twenty days* journey. .We shall now speak of a province
named Tholoman, situated eight days journey from the

former.

CHAPTER XLVIII

OF THOLOMAN

THE province of Tholoman lies towards the east/ and its in
habitants are idolaters. They have a peculiar language, and
are subjects of the grand khan. The people are tall and good-
looking ; their complexions inclining rather to brown than fair.
They are just in their dealings, and brave in war. Many of
their towns and castles are situated upon lofty mountains.
They burn the bodies of their dead; and the bones that are
not reduced to ashes, they put into wooden boxes, and carry
them to the mountains, where they conceal them in caverns
of the rocks, in order that no wild animal may disturb them. 2
Abundance of gold is found here. For the ordinary small
currency they use the porcelain shells that come from India;
and this sort of money prevails also in the two before-men
tioned provinces of Kangigu and Amu. Their food and drink
are the same that has been already mentioned.

1 No name resembling Tholoman, Toloman, or Coloman, as the word
appears in different versions, is to be found in any map or description
of these parts; but as the circumstances stated render it probable that
the country spoken of is that of the people variously called Birmahs,
Burrnahs, Bomans, and Burmans, we may conjecture that the word
was intended for Po-lo-man, which is known to be the mode in which
the Chinese pronounce Burmaa and Brahman, and by which they of en
designate the people of India in general.

2 The ceremonies practised by certain mountaineers of Ava or the
Burmah country, named Kayn, bear a strong resemblance to what is
here described: " They burn their dead," says Symes, " and aftenvards
collect their ashes in an urn, which they convey to a house, where, if
the urn contains the relics of a man, they keep it six days, if of a woman,
five; after which it is carried to the place of interment and deposited
in a grave, and on the sod that covers it is laid a wooden image of the
deceased to pray to the mourning (deity) and protect the bones and
ashes." He added, " that the mourning resided on the great mountain
Gnowa, where the images of the dead are deposited." Embassy to
Ava, p. 447-

264

Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER XLIX

OF THE CITIES OF CHINTIGUI, SIDIN-FU, GIN-GUI,

AND PAZAN-FU

LEAVING the province of Tholoman, and pursuing a course
towards the east/ you travel for twelve days by a river, on
each side of which lie many towns and castles ; when at length
you reach the large and handsome city of Chintigui, 2 the in
habitants of which are idolaters, and are the subjects of the
grand khan. They are traders and artisans. They make
cloth of the bark of certain trees, which looks well, and is the
ordinary summer clothing of both sexes. The men are brave
warriors. They have no other kind of money than the stamped
paper of the grand khan. 3

In this province the tigers are so numerous, that the inhabi
tants, from apprehension of their ravages, cannot venture to
sleep at night out of their towns ; and those who navigate the
river dare not go to rest with their boats moored near the banks ;
for these animals have been known to plunge into the water,
swim to the vessel, and drag the men from thence; but find it

1 The countries last spoken of appear indubitably to have belonged
to that region which geographers term " India extra Gangem." These
our author s route now leaves behind, and what follows in the remain
ing chapters of this book applies only to China or its immediate de
pendencies.

2 We cannot discover in the southern part of Yun-nan (towards which
he might be supposed to have returned) any city resembling Chinti-gui
or Chinti-giu in name; but a material difference between the text of
Ramusio and those of the other versions occurs here, which might be
hoped to afford a clue for tracing the progress of the route. According
to the former our author prosecutes his journey from Tholoman by the
course of a river (whether wholly or in part only, is not clearly expressed)
to the city above mentioned. In the Basle edition, on the contrary, it
is said : "A provincia Tholoman ducit iter versus orientem ad provinciam
Gingui, iturque duodecim diebus juxta fluvium quendam, donee per-
veniatur ad civitatem grandem Sinuglu: " and in the early Italian epi
tome, " Cuigui sie una provincia verso oriente laqual ello trovo Phomo
quando se parti da Toloman tu vai su per uno flume per xii. zornade tro-
vando cita e castelli: e trovi la cita de Similgu grande e nobile; " to
which city of Sinulgu or Similgu are attributed all the circumstances
above related of Cintigui. [The name in the Paris Latin text is Funil-
gul.] If the reading of Cui-gui or Kui-giu be more correct than the
others, we might conjecture it to be intended for the Chinese province
of Koei-cheu or Quei-cheu, which, adjoining to that of Yun-nan on the
eastern side, would be in point of direction no unlikely road to the capital.

3 The circumstance of the emperor s paper money being current,
shows that the country here spoken of was an integral part of the empire,
and not one of its remote dependencies, where the sovereignty was more
nominal than real

Abundance of Tigers 265

necessary to anchor in the middle of the stream, where, in
consequence of its great width, they are in safety. 1 In this
country are likewise found the largest and fiercest dogs that
can be met with : so courageous and powerful are they, that a
man, with a couple of them, may be an over-match for a tiger.
Armed with a bow and arrows, and thus attended, should he
meet a tiger, he sets on his intrepid dogs, who instantly advance
to the attack. The animal instinctively seeks a tree, against
which to place himself, in order that the dogs may not be able
to get behind him, and that he may have his enemies in front.
With this intent, as soon as he perceives the dogs, he makes
towards the tree, but with a slow pace, and by no means run
ning, that he may not show any signs of fear, which his pride
would not allow. During this deliberate movement, the dogs
fasten upon him, and the man plies him with his arrows. He,
in his turn, endeavours to seize the dogs, but they are too
nimble for him, and draw back, when he resumes his slow
march; but before he can gain his position, he has been
wounded by so many arrows, and so often bitten by the dogs,
that he falls through weakness and from loss of blood. By
these means it is that he is at length taken. 2

There is here an extensive manufacture of silks, which are
exported in large quantities to other parts 3 by the navigation
of the river, which continues to pass amongst towns and
castles; and the people subsist entirely by trade. At the end
of twelve days, you arrive at the city of Sidin-fu, of which an
account has been already given. 4 From thence, in twenty

1 Numerous instances are recorded of boats being attacked at night
by tigers, amongst the alluvial islands at the mouth of the Ganges,
called the Sunderbunds, and sometimes it happens that whole crews are
destroyed whilst sleeping on board.

2 If the beast here spoken of be actually the tiger and not the lion
(of which latter none are found in China), it must be confessed that the
manners ascribed to him in this story are very different from those
which usually mark his feline character. In the old English version of
1579 (from the Spanish), it is not the lion or tiger, but the elephant
that is said to be the subject of this mode of baiting with " mastie-
dogges." I am assured, however, that dogs do attack both tigers and
leopards.

3 The trade in wrought silks denotes this to be a place in China, and
to the south of the Yellow River, beyond which the silkworm is not
reared for the purposes of manufacture.

4 From the context we might be led to infer that the Si-din-fu here
spoken of should be the same place as the Chinti-gui mentioned at the
commencement of this chapter, inasmuch as the journey of twelve days
from Tholoman is here again referred to; but on the other hand we are
much more clearly given to understand that it is the city before described
(in chap, xxxvi.) by the name of Sin-din-fa, and which was shown (in

266 Travels of Marco Polo

days, you reach Gin-gui, in which we were, and in four days
more the city of Pazan-fu, 1 which belongs to Cathay, and lies
towards the south, in returning by the other side of the pro
vince. 2 The inhabitants worship idols, and burn the bodies of

note 1 , p. 234) to be intended for Ching-tu-fu, the capital of the province
of Se-chuen. This would lie in the route from Ava and the province of
Yun-nan towards the city of Pekin.

1 In this part of the work, indeed, we perceive a more than usual
degree of perplexity in the geographical matter, which is increased by
a want of agreement in the several versions, not merely in orthography,
but in the entire names of places as well as in circumstances. The
journey of twenty days stated in Ramusio s text is not mentioned either
in the Latin version or early Italian epitome, and it appears in the first
instance uncertain whether by Gin-gui is here meant that southern pro
vince which in the latter is named Cui-gui, and has been conjectured to
be Koci-cheu, or whether it may have been intended for Kin-cheu on the
Kiang, or (admitting a large hiatus in the journal) for another Kin-cheu
in the province of Pe-che-li. For the city, likewise, which Ramusio
names Pazan-fu, the other versions speak of Caucasu or Cancasu. But
in addition to the confusion of names, we have, at this point, a new diffi
culty to contend with; for as the general course of the journey has
latterly been to the east, as expressed in the text, or to the north-east, as
inferred from positions, so at this place, and from henceforward, we find
it described as tending to the south ; although from the preceding chap
ters it might seem that the southern provinces of China had been but
just entered from the side of Mien or Ava. Our author s want of accu
racy in bearings, as they respect the intermediate points of the compass,
has often required the exercise of indulgence: but this cannot be ex
tended to the mistaking north for south ; nor would even a correction of
this nature in one or two instances avail us; for we shall presently find
him approaching the Yellow River from the northern side, crossing that
river, and, in the continuance of his southerly course, describing well-
known places between it and the Kiang, which he likewise crosses in his
way to the province of Fo-kien. It is consequently in one or other of
the most northern provinces that we should make our search for Pazan-fu,
and we shall be fully justified in drawing the conclusion, that a fresh
itinerary, hitherto unnoticed, as it would seem, by any editor or com
mentator, has commenced from some place in the vicinity of the capital ;
and that the fruitless attempt to connect this with the former route, as
constituting one journey, has chiefly given rise to the confusion of
which every reader who has endeavoured to follow the course of the
travels must have found reason to complain.

a It has been shown that about a mile from the town of Tso-cheu, in
the province of Pe-che-li, the roads are said to divide, the one leading to
the south-western, and the other to the south-eastern provinces. The
first was that which our author pursued in his former route, and has
described to a certain point, where either his original memoranda left
it incomplete, or his early transcribers, to avoid the monotonous repeti
tion of unknown and to them uninteresting names, were induced to
terminate it abruptly. The latter road, to the south-east, is that upon
which he is now about to enter. Under the conviction, therefore, of a
new intinerary having commenced about this part of the narrative from
some place near Tso-cheu, where the roads divide, we are naturally led
to consider the city now called Ho-kien-fu (the first in the southern
route) as the Pa-zan-fu of Ramusio s text, or Ca-cau-su (for fu) of the
Basle edition; the probability of which, however discordant the sound
of the names, we shall find to be strengthened as we proceed to the ac
count of places subsequently visited. Ho-kien-fu (the first syllable of

The City of Chan-glu 267

their dead. There are here also certain Christians, who have
a church. 1 They are subjects of the grand khan, and his
paper money is current among them. They gain their living
by trade and manufacture, having silk in abundance, of which
they weave tissues mixed with gold, and also very fine scarfs.
This city has many towns and castles under its jurisdiction:
a great river flows beside it, by means of which large quan
tities of merchandise are conveyed to the city of Kanbalu;
for by the digging of many canals it is made to communicate
with the capital. But we shall take our leave of this, and,
proceeding three days journey, speak of another city named
Chan-glu.

CHAPTER L

OF THE CITY OF CHAN-GLU

CHAN-GLU is a large city situated towards the south, 2 and is
in the province of Cathay. It is under the dominion of the
grand khan. The inhabitants worship idols, and burn the
bodies of their dead. The stamped paper of the emperor is
current amongst them. In this city and the district surround
ing it they make great quantities of salt, by the following pro
cess: in the country is found a salsuginous earth; upon this,
when laid in large heaps, they pour water, which in its passage
through the mass imbibes the particles of salt, and is then
collected in channels, from whence it is conveyed to very
wide pans, not more than four inches in depth. In these it
is well boiled, and then left to crystallize. The salt thus made
is white and good, and is exported to various parts. 3 Great

which a Tartar would pronounce Ko) is the third city of the province in
rank, and derives its name from its position " between the rivers."

1 The expression of cerli Christiani may either mean a sect of Christians
distinct from the Nestorians, already so often mentioned, or may refer
to the Nestorians themselves, as a sort of Christians, not Catholic.

\To the eastward of Ho-kien, but inclining to the south, we find a
city of the second order, dependent on the jurisdiction of the former,
which in Du Halde s map is properly named Tsan-tcheu, but in Martini s
Atlas, Cang-cheu, incorrectly for Cang-cheu. This is evidently Cianglu
or Chang-lu here mentioned.

3 From this detail of the process it may be thought that nitre or salt
petre, rather than common salt, is the article so procured. The follow
ing passage, from the translation of Abbe Grosier s Description generate
de la Chine, will leave no doubt on this point: " The earth which forms
the soil of Petcheli abounds with nitre; whole fields may be seen in the
neighbourhood of Pe-king which are covered with it. Every morning

268 Travels of Marco Polo

profits are made by those who manufacture it, and the grand
khan derives from it a considerable revenue. This district
produces abundance of well-flavoured peaches, of such a size
that one of them will weigh two pounds troy-weight. 1 We
shall now speak of another city, named Chan-gli.

CHAPTER LI

OF THE CITY OF CHAN-GLI

CHAN-GLI also is a city of Cathay, 2 situated towards the south,
and belonging to the grand khan, the inhabitants of which are
idolaters, and in like manner make use of the khan s paper
currency. Its distance from Chan-glu is five days journey,
in the course of which you pass many cities and castles likewise
in the dominions of the grand khan. They are places of great
commerce, and the customs levied at them amount to a large
sum. 3 Through this city passes a wide and deep river, which
affords conveyance to vast quantities of merchandise, con
sisting of silk, drugs, and other valuable articles. We shall
now take leave of this place, and give an account of another
city named Tudin-fu.

CHAPTER LII

OF THE CITY OF TUDIN-FU

WHEN you depart from Chan-gli, and travel southwards six
days journey, you pass many towns and castles of great im-

at sunrise the country in certain cantons appears as white as if sprinkled
by a gentle fall of snow. If a quantity of this substance be swept
together, a great deal of kien, nitre, and salt may be extracted from it.
The Chinese pretend that this salt may be substituted for common salt;
however this may be, it is certain that in the (mountainous) extremity
of the province, poor people and the greater part of the peasants make
use of no other. With regard to the kien procured from the earth, they
use it for washing linen, as we do soap." Vol. i. p. 27.

1 " Peso alia sottile " is explained in the dictionaries by " poids de
marchandises fines, plus leger que 1 autre," which corresponds to the
difference of fourteen and seventeen, between our troy and avoirdupois
weights.

2 The city of Ciangli or Changli appears to be that of Te-cheu, situated
at the entrance of the province of Shan-tung, on the river called Oei-ho
in Du Halde s map, and Eu-ho, in the account of Lord Macartney s
Embassy.

3 A transit duty (Staunton observes) is laid on goods passing from one

The City of Tudin-fu 269

portance and grandeur, whose inhabitants worship idols, and
burn the bodies of their dead. They are the subjects of the
grand khan, and receive his paper money as currency. They
subsist by trade and manufactures, and have provisions in
abundance. At the end of these six days you arrive at a city
named Tudin-fu, 1 which was formerly a magnificent capital,
but the grand khan reduced it to his subjection by force of
arms. It is rendered a delightful residence by the gardens
which surround it, stored as they are with handsome shrubs
and excellent fruits. 2 Silk is produced here in wonderfully
large quantities. It has under its jurisdiction eleven cities
and considerable towns of the empire, all places of great trade,
and having abundance of silk. It was the seat of government
of its own king, before the period of its reduction by the grand
khan. In 1272 3 the latter appointed one of his officers of the
highest rank, named Lucansor, to the government of this city,
with a command of seventy thousand horse, for the protection
of that part of the country. This man upon finding himself
master of a rich and highly productive district, and at the
head of so powerful a force, became intoxicated with pride, and
formed schemes of rebellion against his sovereign. With this
view he tampered with the principal persons of the city, per
suaded them to become partakers in his evil designs, and by
their means succeeded in producing a revolt throughout all
the towns and fortified places of the province. As soon as the
grand khan became acquainted with these traitorous proceed
ings, he despatched to that quarter an army of a hundred thou
sand men, under the orders of two others of his nobles, one of
whom was named Angul and the other Mongatai. When the
approach of this force was known to Lucansor, he lost no time

province of China to another; each province being noted, chiefly, for
the production of some particular article, the conveyance of which, to
supply the demand for it in the others, raises this duty to a considerable
sum, and forms the great internal commerce and revenue of the empire.

1 We have historical evidence that Tudin-fu is Tsi-nan-fu (by Martini
written Cinan-fu), the capital of the province of Shan-tung.

2 The routes of our modern travellers have not led them to visit this
city, but that of the Dutch embassy of 1795, in its return, passed through
several of the towns under its jurisdiction. Upon the approach to one
of these named Ping-yuen-shen, Van Braam describes the scenery in
terms similar to, but more luxuriant than those employed by our author,
and the orchards of fruit are particularly noticed.

8 The circumstance of which our author proceeds to speak, is, by
L Histoire generale de la Chine, assigned to a period ten years earlier.
The Roman numerals, in which dates are expressed in the old manu
scripts, are more liable to errors than the Arabic, or rather Indian figures,
now in use.

270 Travels of Marco Polo

in assembling an army no less numerous than that of his oppo
nents, and brought them as speedily as possible to action.
There was much slaughter on both sides, when at length,
Lucansor being killed, his troops betook themselves to flight.
Many were slain in the pursuit, and many were made prisoners.
These were conducted to the presence of the grand khan, who
caused the principals to be put to death, and pardoning the
others took them into his own service, to which they ever
afterwards continued faithful.

CHAPTER LIII

OF THE CITY OF SINGUI-MATU

TRAVELLING from Tudin-fu three days, in a southerly direction,
you pass many considerable towns and strong places, where
commerce and manufactures flourish. The inhabitants are
idolaters, and are subjects of the grand khan. The country
abounds with game, both beasts and birds, and produces an
ample supply of the necessaries of life. At the end of three
days you arrive at the city of Singui-matu, 1 which is noble,
large, and handsome, and rich in merchandise and manufac
tures ; all the inhabitants of this city are idolaters, and are sub
jects of the grand khan and use paper money; within it, but
on the southern side, passes a large and deep river, which the
inhabitants divided into two branches, one of which, taking its
course to the east, runs through Cathay, whilst the other,
taking a westerly course, passes towards the province of
Manji. 2 This river is navigated by so many vessels that the

1 The circumstances here mentioned of Sin-gui-matu seem to point to
the large commercial town of Lin-tsin-cheu, situated at the northern
extremity, or commencement, of the Yun-ho or grand canal. The term
matu or mateou, subjoined to names, signifies, as we are told by Du Halde
(torn. i. p. 137), " lieux de commerce etablis sur les rivieres, pour la com-
modite des negocians et la levee des droits de Pempereur; " and by P.
Magalhanes, md-teti is denned to be, " lieu frequente pour le commerce;
parceque les barques s y assemblent et y jettent 1 ancre pour y passer la
nuit." Nouv. Relat. de la Chine, p. 9.

2 These expressions might be considered as intended to describe the
formation of the canal itself, which must, of course, have been supplied
with water by diverting so much of the stream of the river as was neces
sary for that purpose; and the operation might consequently be said to
divide it into two branches; but they may be thought rather to refer to
the following curious circumstance noticed in the Account of Lord
Macartney s Embassy: " On the 25th of October (the third day after its
departure from Lin-tsing) the yachts arrived at the highest part of the

The City of Singui-matu 271

number might seem incredible, and serves to convey from both
provinces, that is, from the one province to the other, every
requisite article of consumption. It is indeed surprising to
observe the multitude and the size of the vessels that are
continually passing and repassing, laden with merchandise of
the greatest value. 1 On leaving Singui-matu and travelling
towards the south for sixteen days, you unceasingly meet
with commercial towns and with castles. The people
throughout the country are idolaters, and subjects of the grand
khan. They burn the bodies of their dead and use paper
money. At the end of eight days journey you find a city
named Lingui. It is a very noble and great city; the men
are warlike; and it has manufactures and commerce. There
are plenty of animals, and abundance of everything for eating
and drinking. After leaving Lingui you proceed three days
journey to the south, passing plenty of cities and castles, all
under the grand khan. All the inhabitants are idolaters, and
burn their dead. At the end of these three days you find a
good city called Pingui, where there are all the necessaries of
life, and this city furnishes a great revenue to the grand khan.
You go thence two days journey to the south, through fair and
rich countries, to a city called Cingui, which is very large, and
abounding in commerce and manufactures. All its inhabitants
are idolaters and burn their dead ; they use paper money, and
are subjects of the grand khan. They have much grain and
wheat. In the country through which you pass subsequently,
you find cities, towns, and castles, and very handsome and
useful dogs, and abundance of wheat. The people resemble
those just described.

canal, being about two-fifths of its entire length. Here the river Luen,
the largest by which the canal is fed, falls into it with a rapid stream, in
a line which is perpendicular to the course of the canal. A strong bul
wark of stone supports the opposite western bank; and the waters of
the Luen striking with force against it, part of them follow the northern,
and part the southern course of the canal a circumstance which, not
being generally explained or understood, gave the appearance of wonder
to an assertion, that if a bundle of sticks be thrown into that part of the
river, they would soon separate and take opposite directions." (Vol.
ii. p. 387.) The name of this place is Tci-ngin-tcheou in Du Halde s
map, and Tsin-jin-tchoo in that of the Embassy; which bears an evi
dent resemblance to the Sin-gui of our text.

1 " I should say, that next to the exuberance of population," says Mr.
Ellis, " the amount of vessels employed on the rivers is the most striking
circumstance hitherto observed, belonging to the Chinese empire."
J ournal of an Embassy, etc. p. 109.

272 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER LIV

OF THE GREAT RIVER CALLED THE KARA-MORAN, AND OF THE
CITIES OF KOI-GAN-ZU AND KUAN-ZU

AT the end of two days journey you reach, once more, the
great river Kara-moran, 1 which has its source in the territories
that belonged to Prester John. It is a mile wide and of vast
depth, and upon its waters great ships freely sail with their
full loading. Large fish in considerable quantities are caught
there. At a place in this river, about a mile distant from the
sea, there is a station for fifteen thousand vessels, each of them
capable of carrying fifteen horses and twenty men, besides the
crews to navigate them, and the necessary stores and pro
visions. 2 These the grand khan causes to be kept in a constant
state of readiness for the conveyance of an army to any of the
islands in the (neighbouring) ocean that may happen to be in
rebellion, or for expeditions to any more distant region. These
vessels are moored close to the bank of the river, not far from
a city named Koi-gan-zu, 3 on the opposite side to which is
another named Kuan-zu, but the former is a large place, and
the latter a small one. 4 Uponcrossing this river you enter the
noble province of Manji; but it must not be understood that a
complete account has been given of the province of Cathay.
Not the twentieth part have I described. Marco Polo, in

1 This is the Tartar name for the great river by the Chinese called the
Hoang-ho, and by us the Yellow River, which has its source in the
country between the western borders of China and the great desert.

2 The number of fifteen thousand must be a prodigious exaggeration,
if we should not rather suppose it to be an error in transcribing. The
early Italian epitome says fifteen vessels; but this is an absurdity in the
opposite extreme, and it is probable that fifteen hundred was the number
intended. The station of these transports, instead of being one mile,
is said in other versions to be one day s journey from the sea.

3 Both from its situation and the resemblance of name, we cannot
hesitate to consider this as the city of Hoai-gnan-fu, which stands near
the south-eastern bank of the Hoang-ho, at the part where it is crossed
by the line of the grand canal, and is itself connected, by means of a
small cut, with that river. All Chinese words commencing with the
aspirate are pronounced by the Western Tartars with a hard guttural
sound; as, on the other hand, the guttural articulation of these people
is softened by the Chinese to the aspirate: thus for Khan they pronounce
Han; for Ko-ko-nor (a certain great lake), Ho-ho-nor; and for Ku-
tukh-tu (the second rank of lamas), Hu-tu-tu.

4 The place here named Kuan-zu or Quan-zu, in the Basle edition
Cai-gui, and in the early epitomes Cai-cui, does not appear in the maps,
but seems to be the place which De Guignes mentions by the name of
Yang-kia-yn.

i The Province of Manji 273

travelling through the province, has only noted such cities as
lay in his route, omitting those situated on the one side and the
other, as well as many intermediate places, because a relation
cf them all would be a work of too great length, and prove
fatiguing to the reader. Leaving these parts we shall there
fore proceed to speak, in the first instance, of the manner in
which the province of Manji was acquired, and then of its cities,
the magnificence and riches of which shall be set forth in the
subsequent part of our discourse.

CHAPTER LV

OF THE MOST NOBLE PROVINCE OF MANJI, AND OF THE MANNER
IN WHICH IT WAS SUBDUED BY THE GRAND KHAN

THE province of Manji is the most magnificent and the richest
that is known in the eastern world. 1 About the year 1269
it was subject to a prince who was styled Facfur, 2 and who
surpassed in power and wealth any other that for a century
had reigned in that country. His disposition was pacific, and
his actions benevolent. So much was he beloved by his
people, and such the strength of his kingdom, enclosed by
rivers of the largest size, that his being molested by any power
upon earth was regarded as an impossible event. The effect
of this opinion was, that he neither paid any attention him
self to military affairs, nor encouraged his people to become
acquainted with military exercises. The cities of his dominions
were remarkably well fortified, being surrounded by deep
ditches, a bow-shot in width, and full of water. He did not
keep up any force in cavalry, because he was not apprehensive
of attack. The means of increasing his enjoyments and multi-

1 We have not materials for assigning precise boundaries either to
Manji or to Khatai; but it is evident that our author considered, gene
rally, that part of China which lies southward of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow
River, as belonging to what he terms the province of Manji, or, with some
few limitations, to the empire of the Song; >and the part that lies north
ward of that river, which was conquered by the Mungals, not from the
Chinese, but from the dynasty of the Kin or Niuche Tartars, by whom
it had been previously subdued, as Khatai or Cathay.

2 This word Facfur was not the name of the individual prince, but
the title of Faghfur, applied by the Arabs and other Eastern people to
the emperors of China, as distinguished from the Tartar sovereigns. It
also denotes (according to the dictionaries) the porcelain of China-ware,
and probably, in general, what the French term " magots de la Chine."
The name of the emperor who reigned at that period was Tu-tsong.

274 Travels of Marco Polo

plying his pleasures were the chief employment of his thoughts.
He. maintained at his court, and kept near his person, about a
thousand beautiful women, in whose society he took delight.
He was a friend to peace and to justice, which he administered
strictly. The smallest act of oppression, or injury of any kind,
committed by one man against another, was punished in an
exemplary manner, without respect of persons. Such indeed
was the impression of his justice, that when shops, filled with
goods, happened, through the negligence of the owners, to
be left open, no person dared to enter them, or to rob them of
the smallest article. Travellers of all descriptions might pass
through every part of the kingdom, by night as well as by day,
freely and without apprehension of danger. He was religious,
and charitable to the poor and needy. 1 Children whom their
wretched mothers exposed in consequence of their inability to
rear them, he caused to be saved and taken care of, to the num
ber of twenty thousand annually. 2 When the boys attained a
sufficient age, he had them instructed in some handicraft, and
afterwards married them to young women who were brought
up in the same manner. 3

Very different from the temper and habits of Facfur were
those of Kublai-khan, emperor of the Tartars, whose whole
delight consisted in thoughts of a warlike nature, of the con
quest of countries, and of extending his renown. After having

1 His character is painted in more favourable colours by our author
than by the Chinese historians, who do not relieve its dark shades with
the light of any virtue.

2 The practice in China of exposing infants, and especially females,
has become matter of notoriety since this first and unequivocal notice
of it by our author. The number of children," says Barrow, " thus
unnaturally and inhumanly slaughtered, or interred alive, in the course
of a year, is differently stated by different authors, some making it about
ten, and others thirty thousand in the whole empire. The truth, as
generally happens, may probably lie about the middle. The missionaries,
who alone possess the means of ascertaining nearly the number that is
thus sacrificed in the capital, differ very materially in their statements:
taking the mean, as given by those with whom we conversed on the
subject, I should conclude that about twenty-four infants were on an
average, in Pekin, daily carried to the pit of death. . . . This calcula
tion gives about nine thousand yearly for the capital alone, where it is
supposed about an equal number are exposed to that of all the other
parts of the empire." Travels in China, p. 169.

8 The Latin edition describes the manner in which the emperor pro
vided for a part of these children, in the following terms: " Rex tamen
infantes, quos sic colligi jubet, tradit divitibus quibusque, quos in regno
suo habet; praesertim illis qui liberis carent, et lit in adoptionis sus-
cipiant filios mandat. Eos vero quos ipse nutrit, matrimonio tradit
puellis ejusdem conditionis." It appears that in the reign of Kang-hi,
also, (who died in 1722,) there was a public establishment at Pekin foi
the recovery of infants so exposed.

Conquest of Manji 275

annexed to his dominions a number of provinces and kingdoms,
he now directed his views to the subduing that of Manji, and
for this purpose assembled a numerous army of horse and foot,
the command of which he gave to a general named Chin-san
Bay -an, which signifies in our language, the " Hundred -eyed." 1
This occurred in the year 1273. A number of vessels were put
under his orders, with which he proceeded to the invasion of
Manji. Upon landing there, he immediately summoned the
inhabitants of the city of Koi-gan-zu to surrender to the
authority of his sovereign. 2 Upon their refusal to comply,
instead of giving orders for an assault, he advanced to the next
city, and when he there received a similar answer, proceeded
to a third and a fourth, with the same result. Deeming it no
longer prudent to leave so many cities in his rear, whilst not
only his army was strong, but he expected to be soon joined by
another of equal force, which the grand khan was to send to him
from the interior, 3 he resolved upon the attack of one of these
cities; and having, by great exertions and consummate skill,
succeeded in carrying the place, he put every individual found
in it to the sword. As soon as the intelligence of this event
reached the other cities, it struck their inhabitants with
such consternation and terror, that of their own accord they
hastened to declare their submission. This being effected, he
advanced, with the united force of his two armies, against the
royal city of Kinsai, the residence of king Facfur, who felt all
the agitation and dread of a person who had never seen a
battle, nor been engaged in any sort of warfare. Alarmed
for the safety of his person, he made his escape to a fleet of
vessels that lay in readiness for the purpose, and embarking
all his treasure and valuable effects, left the charge of the city
to his queen, with directions for its being defended to the
utmost; feeling assured that her sex would be a protection to
her, in the event of her falling into the hands of the enemy.
He from thence proceeded to sea, and reaching certain islands,
where were some strongly fortified posts, he continued there

1 Ba-yan, or, as the Chinese pronounce the name, Pe-yen, literally
signifies, in that language, " a hundred eyes," *and may be considered
as the agnomen or epithet of this distinguished warrior, derived from his
vigilance, circumspection, and quickness in improving an advantage.

2 The earliest operation of the war against the Song, or dynasty who
reigned in Manji, took place (according to L Hist. gen.) to the westward,
at Siang-yang, which was invested in 1269 (before our author s arrival
in Chi-ia),valthough not captured till 1273.

3 This was perhaps the army that had been employed in the reduction
of Siang yang.

276

Travels of Marco Polo

till his death. 1 After the queen had been left in the mannei
related, it is said to have come to her knowledge that the king
had been told by his astrologers that he could never be de
prived of his sovereignty by any other than a chief who should
have a hundred eyes. On the strength of this declaration she
felt confident, notwithstanding that the city became daily
more and more straitened, that it could not be lost, because it
seemed a thing impossible that any mortal could have that
number of eyes. Inquiring, however, the name of the general
who commanded the enemy s troops, and being told it was
Chin-san Bay-an, which means a hundred eyes, she was seized
with horror at hearing it pronounced, as she felt a conviction
that this must be the person who, according to the saying of
the astrologers, might drive her husband from his throne.
Overcome by womanish fear, she no longer attempted to make
resistance, but immediately surrendered. 2 Being thus in
possession of the capital, the Tartars soon brought the re
mainder of the province under their subjection. 3 The queen
was sent to the presence of Kublai-khan, where she was
honourably received by him, and an allowance was by his
orders assigned, that enabled her to support the dignity of her
rank. Having stated the manner in which the conquest of
Manji was effected, we shall now speak of the different cities
of that province, and first of Koi-gan-zu.

1 Our author appears in this place to have crowded under one reign
events that belong to two or more, which followed each other in rapid
succession. The emperor Tu-tsong, whose unwarlike and depraved
character was said to have been the occasion of the misfortunes that
befel his country, died in 1274; when the minister by whose evil counsels
he had been implicitly governed placed his second son, an infant, on the
throne, and caused the empress, his mother, to be declared regent during
the minority. This prince, who was named Koiig-tsong, afterwards fell
into the hands of the Tartars; but the Chinese, who still adhered to the
fortunes of the expiring dynasty, conferred the imperial title upon his
elder brother, named Tuan-tsong; and to his fate it is that the passage
in the text applies.

2 Such we may suppose to have been the popular story, which our
author repeats as he heard it, but which, probably, had no better founda
tion than a Chinese equivoque upon the name of this great captain, to
whose talents his master was indebted for the conquest of Southern
China, and of whom it is said by the Chinese historians that " he con
ducted a large army as if it had been a single man."

8 The surrender of the capital took place in 1276, but it was not until
the end of the year 1279 t^ at the conquest of China was completed by
the issue of a great naval engagement.

The Town of Pau-ghin 277

CHAPTER LVT

OF THE CITY OF KOI-GAN-ZU

KOI-GAN-ZU is a very handsome and wealthy city, lying in a
direction between south-east and east, at the entrance of the
province of Manji, where a prodigious number of vessels are
continually passing, its situation (as we have already observed)
being near the bank of the river Kara-moran. 1 Large con
signments of merchandise are forwarded to this city, in order
that the goods may be transported, by means of this river, to
various other places. Salt is manufactured here in great
quantities, not only for the consumption of the city itself, but
for exportation to other parts; and from this salt the grand
khan derives an ample revenue. 2

CHAPTER LVII

OF THE TOWN OF PAU-GHIN

UPON leaving Koi-gan-zu, you travel one day s journey towards
the south-east, by a handsome stone causeway, leading into
the province of Manji. On both sides of the causeway there
are very extensive marshy lakes, the waters of which are deep,
and may be navigated ; 3 nor is there besides this any other
road by which the province can be entered. It is, however,
accessible by means of shipping; and in this manner it was
that the officer who commanded the grand khan s armies in
vaded it, by effecting a landing with his whole force. 4 At the

1 The city is about five miles distant from the Yellow River, with
which it communicates by means of the grand canal.

* " Proche de la," says P. Martini, " il y a des marais salans, ou il se
fait du sel en abondance." Thevenot, iii. partie, p. 321.

3 These causeways form the embankments of the canal, and separate
it, on a higher level, from the waters of the lake. It would seem that in
our author s time there was only a single embankment at this part, by
means of which the waters of the lake, on that side which was fed by the
rivulets, were kept up to an artificial level. Much of the country, Staun-
ton observes, that was formerly under water, has been drained and
brought into cultivation.

4 From this it must be understood that the fleet of transports entered
the canal, or the portion of the lake that served the purpose of a canal,
and conveyed the troops to the neighbourhood of the city of Hoai-gnan,
which stands on its bank in the midst of a swamp.

278

Travels of Marco Polo

end of the day s journey, you reach a considerable town named
Pau-ghin. 1 The inhabitants worship idols, burn their dead,
use paper money, and are the subjects of the grand khan. They
gain their living by trade and manufacture: they have much
silk, and weave gold tissues. The necessaries of life are there in
abundance.

CHAPTER LVIII

OF THE CITY OF KAIN

AT the distance of a day s journey from Pau-ghin, towards
the south-east, stands the large and well-built city of Kain. 2
Its inhabitants are idolaters, use the paper money as their cur
rency, and are the subjects of the grand khan. Trade and
manufactures flourish amongst them. They have fish in
abundance, and game also, both beasts and birds. Pheasants,
in particular, are in such plenty, that for a bit of silver equal in
value to a Venetian groat you may purchase three of these
birds, of the size of pea-fowls.

CHAPTER LIX

OF THE CITIES OF TIN-GUI AND CHIN-GUI

AT the end of a day s journey from the last-mentioned place,
in the course of which many villages and much tilled land are
met with, you reach a city named Tin-gui, not of any great size,
but plentifully furnished with all the necessaries of life. The
people are idolaters, the subjects of the grand khan, and use
his paper money. They are merchants, and have many trad
ing vessels. Both beasts and birds are here found in plenty.
The situation of this city is towards the south-east, and on the
left-hand that is, on the eastern side of it, at the distance of
three days journey you find the sea. In the intermediate

1 This is the Pau-in-cheu of Van Braam s journal, the Pao-yn-hien of
Du Halde s map, and the Pao-yng-shien of Staunton s.

2 However different the names may appear, this is evidently the town-
of Kao-yu, on the banks of the lake and canal; and it is not improbable
that Ka-in is a typographical mistake of Ka-iu, or Ka-yu, as in almost
every name we have observed the final u to be changed for some other
letter resembling it in form.

The City of Yan-gui 279

space there are many salt-works, where large quantities of
salt are manufactured. 1 You next come to the large and well-
built town of Chin-gui, from whence salt is exported sufficient
for the supply of all the neighbouring provinces. 2 On this
article the grand khan raises a revenue, the amount of which
would scarcely be credited. Here also the inhabitants worship
idols, use paper money, and are the subjects of his majesty.

CHAPTER LX

OF THE CITY OF YAN-GUI, OF WHICH MARCO POLO HELD

THE GOVERNMENT

PROCEEDING in a south-easterly direction from Chin-gui, you
come to the important city of Yan-gui, which, having twenty-
four towns under its jurisdiction, must be considered as a
place of great consequence. 3 It belongs to the dominion of
the grand khan. The people are idolaters, and subsist by
trade and manual arts. They manufacture arms and all sorts
of warlike accoutrements; in consequence of which many
troops are stationed in this part of the country. The city is
the place of residence of one of the twelve nobles before

1 Tingui, or Tingiu, appears to be the Tai-cheu of the maps, a city of
the second order, dependent upon Yang-cheu-fu; but of which, as it
lies out of the route of travellers, we have little information. The
situation, however, with respect to the sea, and in the midst of salt
works, serves to establish their identity. " II y a beaucoup de salines,"
observes Martini, " vers 1 orient de la ville (de Yang-cheu) ou le sel se
fait de 1 eau de la mer." P. 129.

2 This place, as a mart for exporting the salt to different provinces, we
may presume to lie near the great river, and Tsing-kiang-hien presents
itself as favourably circumstanced for that traffic. It must, however,
be observed that Chin-gui, or Cin-gui, as distinct from Tin-gui, is not to
be found in the Basle edition or Venice epitome.

3 The points of the compass must here be greatly perverted; but
whatever may be the situations assigned to the inconsiderable places
just mentioned, no doubts can be entertained of Yan-gui, or Yan-giu,
being the city of Yang-cheu-fu; although the jurisdiction of the latter
comprehended, in the seventeenth century, according to Martini, only
ten, instead of twenty- four towns. " C est une ville forte marchande,"
says Du Halde, " et il s y fait un grand commerce de toutes sortes d ouv-
rages Chinois. . . Le reste du canal jusqu a Pe-king, ii a aucune ville
qui lui soit comparable. . . Yang-tcheou a deux lieues de circuit, et Ton
y compte, taut dans la ville, que dans les fauxbourgs, deux millions
d ames." (Tom. i. p. 134.) Staunton speaks of it as a city of the first
order, bearing the marks of great antiquity. " It still," he says, " had
the appearance of carrying on a considerable trade ; and there were not
fewer than a thousand vessels of different sizes lying at anchor close to
it." P. 420.

280 Travels of Marco Polo

spoken of, who are appointed by his majesty to the govern
ment of the provinces; l and in the room of one of these,
Marco Polo, by special order of the grand khan, acted as
governor of this city during the space of three years.

CHAPTER LXI

OF THE PROVINCE OF NAN-GHIN

NAN-GHIN is the name of a large and distinguished province
of Manji, situated towards the west. 2 The people are
idolaters, use paper money in currency, are subjects of the
grand khan, and are largely engaged in commerce. They
have raw silk, and weave tissues of silver and gold in great
quantities, and of various patterns. The country produces
abundance of corn, and is stored as well with domestic cattle
as with beasts and birds that are the objects of the chase, and
plenty of tigers. It supplies the sovereign with an ample
revenue, and chiefly from the imposts levied upon the rich
articles in which the merchants trade. We shall now speak
of the noble city of Sa-yan-fu.

CHAPTER LXII

OF THE CITY OF SA-YAN-FU, THAT WAS TAKEN BY THE
MEANS OF NICOLO AND MAFFEO POLO

SA-YAN-FU is a considerable city of the province of Manji,
having under its jurisdiction twelve wealthy and large towns. 3

1 From the account of the Civil Tribunal of Twelve, given in chap,
xix. of this book, and note 2 , p. 206, it did not appear, as this passage
implies, that the governors of the provinces, or viceroys, as they are
termed (tsong-tu), were chosen from their own body. Such a selection
may have taken place occasionally, without being the established prac
tice.

2 By Nan-ghin (in the Basle edition Nauigui, and in the manuscripts
as well as the epitome Naingui) must unquestionably be meant Nankin,
formerly the name of the province to which the reigning dynasty has
given that of Kiang-nan.

3 Iii proceeding to the description of this remarkable city, our author
departs from the forms of an itinerary, and makes no mention of its dis
tance or its bearings from any of the places already noticed. Siang-
yang is situated in the northern part of the province of Hu-kuang, adjoin
ing to that of Kiang-nan, upon the river Han, which discharges itself
into the Kiang. The number of towns under its jurisdiction at the time
Martini wrote, was seven, exclusive of some fortresses.

Siege of Sa-yan-fu 28 i

It is a place of great commerce and extensive manufactures.
The inhabitants burn the bodies of their dead, and are
idolaters. 1 They are the subjects of the grand khan, and use
his paper currency. Raw silk is there produced in great
quantity, and the finest silks, intermixed with gold, are woven.
Game of all kinds abounds. The place is amply furnished
with everything that belongs to a great city, and by its un
common strength it was enabled to stand a siege of three years ;
refusing to surrender to the grand khan, even after he had ob
tained possession of the province of Manji. 2 The difficulties
experienced in the reduction of it were chiefly occasioned by
the army s not being able to approach it, excepting on the
northern side; the others being surrounded with water, 3
by means of which the place continually received supplies,
which it was not in the power of the besiegers to prevent.
When the operations were reported to his majesty, he felt
extremely hurt that this place alone should obstinately hold
out, after all the rest of the country had been reduced to obedi
ence. The circumstance having come to the knowledge of the
brothers Nicolo and Maffeo, who were then resident at the
imperial court, 4 they immediately presented themselves to
the grand khan, and proposed to him that they should be
allowed to construct machines, such as were made use of in
the West, capable of throwing stones of three hundred pounds
weight, by which the buildings of the city might be destroyed
and the inhabitants killed. Their memorial was attended to

1 We are naturally surprised at these repeated assertions, that, even
in the central parts of the empire, the inhabitants were accustomed to
burn the bodies of their dead. It appears, however, from the observa
tions made by the gentlemen of the Dutch embassy, in passing through
the province of Kiang-nan, that regular inhumation is not, even now, so
general as had been supposed; and it may be fair to conjecture that, as
many of the Chinese superstitions, and along with them the doctrine of
the metempsychosis, were borrowed from their Indian neighbours, the
rites of the funeral pile may formerly have been still more prevalent.

* According to those who have written on the authority of the Chinese
annals, Siang-yang was invested in 1269, and taken in 1273; whereas
Hang cheu, the capital of the Song, was not summoned until 1276. Our
author, therefore, instead of saying that the whole of Manji had been
conquered during the continuance of the siege, should have confined his
assertion to a considerable part.

8 The operations were directed, in the first instance, against Fan-
ching, on the northern side of the Han, opposite to, and a kind of suburb
of, Siang-yang, which appears from the plan in Du Halde to be in part
encompassed by a bend of that river.

4 In the Basle edition the author ascribes to himself a share of the
merit; the words being: Illo enim tempore ego et pater meus atque
patruus fuimus in imperatoris aula; and in the Italian epitome:
Certamente la fo presa per industria de miser Nicolo e Mafio e Marco."

282 Travels of Marco Polo

by the grand khan, who, warmly approving of the scheme,
gave orders that the ablest smiths and carpenters should be
placed under their direction; amongst whom were some Nes-
torian Christians, who proved to be most able mechanics. 1 In
a few days they completed their mangonels, according to the
instructions furnished by the two brothers; and a trial being
made of them in the presence of the grand khan, and of his
whole court, an opportunity was afforded of seeing them cast
stones, each of which weighed three hundred pounds. They
were then put on board of vessels, and conveyed to the army.
When set up in front of the city of Sa-yan-fu, the first stone
projected by one of them fell with such weight and violence
upon a building, that a great part of it was crushed, and fell
to the ground. So terrified were the inhabitants by this
mischief, which to them seemed to be the effect of a thunder
bolt from heaven, 2 that they immediately deliberated upon
the expediency of surrendering. Persons authorized to treat
were accordingly sent from the place, and their submission
was accepted on the same terms and conditions as had been
granted to the rest of the province. This prompt result of
their ingenuity increased the reputation and credit of these
two Venetian brothers in the opinion of the grand khan and of
all his courtiers. 3

1 These people we might understand from the text of Ramusio to be
Asiatic Christians, and possibly Ighurs or Rumis, who were then ac
counted the most ingenious and best instructed people employed at
the courts or in the armies of the Tartar and other Eastern princes.
In the Basle edition, on the contrary, they are spoken of as " fabros
lignarios Christianos quos nobiscum habuimus; " and in the epitome,
as " maestri Venetian! che era (erano) in quelle parte."

a Frequent notice is taken in the Chinese annals of the fall of meteoric
stones. See. Voy a Peking par De Guignes, torn. i. pp. 195 250.

3 It must not here be passed unnoticed, that the consistency of our
author is put to a severe test by the date commonly assigned to the
reduction of Siang-yang, which, if it actually took place at the close
of the year 1273, allows no more than two years for the journey of
the Polo family from Acre, in Palestine, which they certainly left about
the end of 1271 (as shown in note l , p. 19), until their arrival at Pekin;
whilst in Ramusio s text, although not in the Basle edition, it is said to
have occupied three years and a half. It becomes necessary therefore
to adopt the opinion, either that the time they were on the road did
not in fact exceed the first-mentioned period, or that the siege was not
terminated so early as P. Gaubil and P. Mailla have stated; to which
latter supposition some degree of probability is given by the repeated
assertion of our author that this was amongst the last places of Manji
that held out against the Tartars.

The Great River Kiang 283

CHAPTER LXIII

OF THE CITY OF SIN-GUI, AND OF THE VERY GREAT RIVER

KIANG

LEAVING the city of Sa-yan-fu, and proceeding fifteen days
journey towards the south-east, you reach the city of Sin-gui,
which, although not large, is a place of great commerce. 1
The number of vessels that belong to it is prodigious, in con
sequence of its being situated near the Kiang, which is the
largest river in the world, its width being in some places ten,
in others eight, and in others six miles. 2 Its length, to the
place where it discharges itself into the sea, is upwards of one
hundred days journey. 3 It is indebted for its great size to
the vast number of other navigable rivers that empty their
waters into it, which have their sources in distant countries.
A great number of cities and large towns are situated upon
its banks, and more than two hundred, with sixteen
provinces, 4 partake of the advantages of its navigation,
by which the transport of merchandise is to an extent
that might appear incredible to those who have not
had an opportunity of witnessing it. When we consider,
indeed, the length of its course, and the multitude of rivers

1 pur author had stepped out of what might be regarded as the line
of his route to speak of a place so remarkable as Siang-yang, and here
again, by a large stride, returns to the eastern provinces. There is no
town that appears to answer so well to the description he has given of
Sin-gui, as that of Kiu-kiang, at the northern extremity of the province
of Kiang-si, and which, as we are informed by Martini, was named Tin-
kiang under the dynasty of the Song.

8 At the place where the Kiang is crossed by the line of the canal the
width is stated by Sir G. Staunton at about two English miles, and by M.
De Guignes at a French league; but nearer to the sea it is, of course,
much greater. As our author should, however, be supposed to speak of
its width near the city he is describing, we ought perhaps to understand
not Italian but Chinese miles, or li, which are to the former in the pro
portion of three to eight, and consequently his estimation would agree
with that of the modern travellers. It is to the city of Kiu-kiang that
the tides of the sea, at the full and change, are perceived to extend; and
here, on this account, it is said to change its appellation of Ta-kiang, or
the great river, for that of Yang-tse-kiang, or the son of the sea.

a The length of its course is computed by Barrow at two thousand
two hundred miles, which would give an average of twenty-two miles
for each day s passage, or perhaps thirty, when the unavoidable stop
pages in so long a tract are considered. By a day s journey must not
in general be understood what a person could travel in a given number
of hours, but the interval between two accustomed resting places.

The division of the provinces was not the same at that period as it
exists at present; the whole number being now fifteen, exclusively of
the island of Hai-nan.

284

Travels of Marco Polo

that communicate with it (as has been observed), it is not sur
prising that the quantity and value of articles for the supply of
so many places, lying in all directions, should be incalculable.
The principal commodity, however, is salt, which is not only
conveyed by means of the Kiang, and the rivers connected with
it, to the towns upon their banks, b^it afterwards from thence to
all places in the interior of the country. 1 On one occasion,
when Marco Polo was at the city of Sin-gui, he saw there not
fewer than fifteen thousand vessels; and yet there are other
towns along the river where the number is still more consider
able. 2 All these vessels are covered with a kind of deck, and
have a mast with one sail. 3 Their burthen is in general about
four thousand cantari, or quintals, of Venice, and from that
upwards to twelve thousand cantari, which some of them are
capable of loading. 4 They do not employ hempen cordage,
excepting for the masts and sails (standing and running
rigging). They have canes of the length of fifteen paces,
such as have been already described, which they split, in their
whole length, into very thin pieces, and these, by twisting them
together, they form into ropes three hundred paces long. 5 So
skilfully are they manufactured, that they are equal in strength
to cordage made of hemp. With these ropes the vessels are
tracked along the rivers, by means of ten or twelve horses to

1 Salt appears to be principally manufactured in that part of Kiang-
uan which lies between the sea, on the east, the Kao-yeu lake on the
west, and the Kiang on the south. Being shipped on the latter, it is
conveyed to the most distant parts of China, but a considerable portion
goes to the metropolis.

* The city of Kiu-kiang, which answers best to the circumstances
related of Sin-gui, is thus spoken of by P. Martini: " Kiu-kiang est une
grande ville et fort marchande sur le bord meridional de la riviere de
Kiang ou elle se joint avec le grand lac de Poyang: on auroit de la peine
a croire le grand nombre de vaisseaux qu il y a, a moins que de 1 avoir
vue; car ils viennent de tous les endroits les plus eloignes de la Chine
dans cette riviere, qui est comme leur rendez-vous, ou ils s assemblent
pour se mettre en mer." P. in.

3 Representations of these vessels may be seen in the plates accom
panying the accounts of all the Embassies to China.

4 The cantaro is commonly translated by quintal or hundredweight,
which would make the burthen of these vessels two hundred, and up to
six hundred tons: but the cantaro of some parts of Italy is smaller than
that of others.

5 Persons who have seen the cables belonging to praws of the Eastern
Islands might suppose that this account of twisting the bamboo into
cordage, was a mistake for the manufacture of cables by twisting or
platting the rattan, so commonly applied to that purpose; but our
author s correctness as to the material is fully proved by the testimony
of modern travellers. " Even the ropes," says Mr. Ellis, by which
the buckets were attached to the wheel, were of bamboo." Journal,
etc. p. 383. y

The City of Kayn-gui 285

each/ as well upwards, against the current, as in the opposite
direction. At many places near the banks of this river there
are hills and small rocky eminences, upon which are erected idol
temples and other edifices, and you find a continual succession
of villages and inhabited places.

CHAPTER LXIV

OF THE CITY OF KAYN-GUI

KAYN-GUI is a small town on the southern bank of the before-
mentioned river, 2 where annually is collected a very large
quantity of corn and rice, the greatest part of which is conveyed
from thence to the city of Kanbalu, for the supply of the estab
lishment of the grand khan ; 3 for through this place is the line
of communication with the province of Cathay, by means of
rivers, lakes, and a wide and deep canal which the grand khan
has caused to be dug, in order that vessels may pass from one
great river to the other, and from the province of Manji, by
water, as far as Kanbalu, without making any part of the
voyage by sea. 4 This magnificent work is deserving of ad
miration; and not so much from the manner in which it is con
ducted through the country, or its vast extent, as from its
utility and the benefit it produces to those cities which lie in
its course. On its banks, likewise, are constructed strong and
wide terraces, or chaussees, upon which the travelling by land
also is rendered perfectly convenient. In the midst of the

1 At the present day it would seem that vessels of every description
are tracked by men only, and not by horses, which, as well as other
cattle, are to a certain degree scarce in China; but there is reason to
believe that under the Mungal princes, great numbers were brought
from Tartary, and much encouragement given to breeding them. It
may be observed at the same time that very little is known of the inland
navigation of the country, excepting what is immediately connected
with the grand canal.

2 There is reason to conclude that by Kayn-gui must be meant a town
situated at the entrance of the canal, on the southern side of the Kiang,
named by P. Magalhanes Chin-kiang-keu, signifying the mouth or port
of Chin-kiang (the Tsin-kiang of De Guignes), a city standing on the
same canal, and which is the subject of the succeeding chapter.

3 The journals of Van Braam and of De Guignes make frequent men
tion of the interruption their yachts experienced from the vast number
of vessels laden with rice for Pekin, that were collected at this part of
the canal.

* In every account of China the description of this grand canal forms
a prominent feature : * an inland navigation of such extent and magni
tude," says Barrow. " as to stand unrivalled in the history of the world."
Its completion, as it now exists, is said to have been effected in the reign
of Yong-lo, third emperor of the Ming, about the year 1409.

286 Travels of Marco Polo

river, opposite to the city of Kayn-gui, there is an island en
tirely of rock, upon which are built a grand temple and monas
tery, where two hundred monks, as they may be termed, reside,
and perform service to the idols ; and this is the supreme head
of many other temples and monasteries. 1 We shall now speak
of the city of Chan-ghian-fu.

CHAPTER LXV

OF THE CITY OF CHAN-GHIAN-FU

CHAN-GHIAN-FU is a city of the province of Manji, 2 the inhabi
tants of which are idolaters, subjects of the grand khan, and
use his paper money. They gain their living by trade and
manufacture, and are wealthy. They weave tissues of silk
and gold. The field sports are there most excellent in every
species of game, and provisions are abundant. There are in
this city three churches of Nestorian Christians, which were
built in the year 1278, when his majesty appointed a Nestorian,
named Mar-Sachis, to the government of it for three years.
By him these churches were established, where there had not
been any before; and they still subsist. 3 Leaving this place,
we shall now speak of Tin-gui-gui.

1 Our author s notice of this island, so peculiarly circumstanced, at the
same time that it presents an unquestionable proof of the genuineness of
his observations, serves to mark with certainty the place at which he
crossed the Kiang. In crossing the river," says Staunton, " the atten
tion was particularly attracted by an island situated in the middle, called
Chin-shan, or the golden mountain, which rose almost perpendicularly
out of the river. ... It belonged to the emperor, who had built upon it
a large and handsome palace, and on the highest eminence several temples
and pagodas. The island also contained a large monastery of priests,
by whom it is chiefly inhabited." Vol. ii. p. 424.

2 " Ceux qui liront les escrits de Marco Polo de Venise," says P. Martini,
" verront clairement par la situation de cette ville et le nom qu elle a
(Chin-kiang-fu) que c est celle qu il nomme Cingiam (Chin-gian). Elle
est bastie sur le bord de la riviere de Kiang, et a 1 orient d un canal fait

mesme." It is evident that this fauxbourg is the town that has been
described under the corrupted name of Kayn-gui, and what has been
said of the resort of shipping might have been reserved for this place.

3 The existence of these churches, of which no reasonable doubt can
be entertained, is a curious fact in the history of the progress made by
the Christian religion in the eastern or remoter parts of China. The
name of the individual is, in the Basle edition, Mar- Sards, and in the
Berlin manuscript, Mar-Iarchis. The title or appellation of Mar, equiva
lent, in Syriac, to Douiinus in Latin, is well known to have been commonly

The City of Tin-gui-gui 287

CHAPTER LXVI

OF THE CITY OF TIN-GUI-GUI

DEPARTING from Chan-ghian-fu, and travelling four days
towards the south-east, you pass many towns and fortified
places, the inhabitants of which are idolaters, live by arts
and commerce, are the subjects of the grand khan, and use
his paper money. At the end of these four days, you reach
the city of Tin-gui-gui, which is large and handsome, 1 and
produces much raw silk, of which tissues of various qualities
and patterns are woven. The necessaries of life are here in
plenty, and the variety of game affords excellent sport. The
inhabitants were a vile, inhuman race. At the time that
Chinsan Ba-yan, or the hundred-eyed, subdued the country
of Manji, he despatched certain Alanian Christians, 2 along
with a party of his own people, to possess themselves of this
city; who, as soon as they appeared before it, were suffered
to enter without resistance. The place being surrounded by
a double wall, one of them within the other, the Alanians
occupied the first enclosure, where they found a large quantity
of wine, and having previously suffered much from fatigue
and privation, they were eager to quench their thirst, and,
without any consideration, proceeded to drink to such excess,
that, becoming intoxicated, they fell asleep. The people of
the city, who were within the second enclosure, as soon as they
perceived that their enemies lay slumbering on the ground,
took the opportunity of murdering them, not suffering one to
escape. When Chinsan Ba-yan learned the fate of his detach
ment, his indignation and anger were raised to the highest

affixed to the names of Nestorian bishops, as well as of other persons of
rank, and as that of Mar-Sergius often occurs in the annals of their
church, it seems likely to have been the name of which Sachis and Sards
are corruptions.

1 The distance of four days journey, in the line of the canal, from the
last-mentioned place, shows that this city, which in the early Venice epi
tome is named Tin-gin-gui, and in the Berlin manuscript Chin-chin-gui,
must be the Tchang-tcheou-fou of Du Halde s map, or Chang-cheu-fu
according to our orthography: " ville celebre et d un grand commerce
qui est situee proche du canal."

2 Without entering upon the ancient and obscure history of the Alani
or Alanians of Scythia or Turkistan, it will be sufficient to observe that
after their defeat and dispersion by the Huns, a considerable portion of
them settled on the northern slope of the range of Caucasus, on the
western side of the Caspian, and, if not actually the same people, are
now confounded with the Abkhas and Cherkess or Circassians.

Travels of Marco Polo

pitch, and he sent another army to attack the place. When
it was carried, he gave orders for putting to the sword all the
inhabitants, great and small, without distinction of sex, as an
act of retaliation.

CHAPTER LXVII

OF THE CITIES OF SIN-GUI AND VA-GIU

SIN-GUI is a large and magnificent city, the circumference of
which is twenty miles. 1 The inhabitants are idolaters, sub
jects of the grand khan, and use his paper money. They have
vast quantities of raw silk, and manufacture it, not only for
their own consumption, all of them being clothed in dresses*
of silk, but also for other markets. There are amongsj; them
some very rich merchants, and the number of inhabitants is so
great as to be a subject of astonishment. They are, however, a
pusillanimous race, and solely occupied with their trade and
manufactures. In these indeed they display considerable
ability, and if they were as enterprising, manly, and warlike,
as they are ingenious, so prodigious is their number, that they
might not only subdue the whole of the province (Manji), but
might carry their views still further. They have amongst
them many physicians of eminent skill, who can ascertain the
nature of the disorder, and know how to apply the proper
remedies. 2 There are also persons distinguished as professors
of learning, or, as we should term them, philosophers, and

1 By Sin-gui is to be understood the eminent city of Su-cheu, situated
in the line of the canal, and much celebrated by travellers, who compare
it in some respects, to Venice. " The streets of the city of Sou-choo-
foo," says Staunton, " through the suburbs of which the yachts now
passed, were divided, like Venice, by branches from the principal canal.
Over each of those branches was erected an elegant stone bridge. The
fleet of the embassy was nearly three hours in passing the suburbs of
Sou-choo-fop, before they arrived at the city walls." (Vol. ii. p. 427.)
" Les murailles de la ville de Sucheu," says Martini, " ont quarante
stades Chinoises de circuit; mais si vous y comprenez les fauxbourgs,
vous en trouverez sans doute plus de cent." (P. 124.) Forty Chinese
// are equal to fifteen Italian miles.

2 Su-cheu-fu being a place of great wealth and luxury, it is natural
that the medical art should there be liberally encouraged, and its prac
titioners skilful. By some writers the Chinese physicians are said to
" have made a proficiency that would astonish the ablest of ours in
Europe; " whilst others consider their elaborate process of feeling the
pulse, and their pretensions of being from thence enabled to ascertain
the seat of the disorder, as nothing better than solemn mummery. See
General Description of China, by the Abbe Grosier, vol. ii. p. 480; and
Barrow s Travels in China, p. 343.

The City of Sin-gui 289

others who may be called magicians or enchanters. 1 On the
mountains near the city, rhubarb grows in the highest per
fection, and is from thence distributed throughout the pro
vince. 2 Ginger is likewise produced in large quantities, and
is sold at so cheap a rate, that forty pounds weight of the
fresh root may be had for the value, in their money, of a Vene
tian silver groat. Under the jurisdiction of Sin-gui there are
sixteen respectable and wealthy cities and towns, where trade
and arts flourish. By the name of Sin-gui is to be understood
" the city of the earth," as by that of Kin-sai, " the city of
heaven. " 3 Leaving Sin-gui, we shall now speak of another

1 By philosophers and magicians, he evidently alludes to the disciples
of Confucius (commonly termed literati), and to those of Lao-kiun, or
the sect of the tao-tse ; as in other places, by the appellation of idolaters,
he means the worshippers of Fo, or Buddha, who constitute the most
numerous class. The first of these study the moral and metaphysical
works of their great master, and take regular degrees in philosophy,
which qualify them, according to their attainments, for holding the
several offices of government, and becoming what Europeans term
" mandarins of letters." The tao-tse, or " sons of immortality," as they
style themselves, hold doctrines which some writers describe as resem
bling those of the Hindu yogis or quietists (from whom they seem, in
fact, to be derived) ; whilst others, judging from their worldly habits,
attribute to them those of the Epicurean school; but whatever their
dogmas may be, they devote themselves to the practice of magic, and
delude their followers by the visions and reveries of the illuminati.

2 " Le tai-hoam (more correctly, according to De Guignes, ta-hoang,
grand jaune) ou la rhubarbe," says P. Perennin, " croit en plusieurs
endroits de la Chine. La meilleure est celle de Sse-tchouen; celle qui
vient dans la province de Xensi et dans le royaume de Thibet, lui est
fort inferieure." (Lett. edif. torn. xix. p. 307.) The mountains of the
province of Kiang-nan, being in the same latitude as the former, may
likewise produce a good kind, although not noticed by our modern tra
vellers, who in general have had little opportunity of making botanical
researches beyond the borders of the canals and high roads. It is evi
dent that a mistake has here been made, probably in the arrangement
of our author s original notes. What is said of the growth of rhubarb
in the neighbourhood of this Sin-gui or Su-cheu, in the eastern province
of Kiang-nan, was undoubtedly meant to apply to another Singui, or
Si-ning, a well-known place of trade in the western province of Shen-si,
and on the road to Tibet. The commerce in that article particularly
belongs to the latter place, and the Russians, as Pallas informs us, make
their contracts for it with Bucharian merchants settled there. It is not
only in itself improbable that two places of the same name, in opposite
extremes of China, should boast of this production, but the fact of
its being found in any one of the eastern provinces is entirely un
supported. With respect to ginger, the quantity that might be pur
chased for a Venetian groat is said in the Italian epitome to be five only,
not forty pounds weight. [The best texts agree in reading forty.]

1 Although pur author may be mistaken in his etymology and in his
distinctive epithets of celestial and terrestrial paradise, it is plain that
his observation refers to a well-known Chinese saying, that, " what the
heavens are, above, Su-cheu and Hang-cheu are upon earth." P. Mar
tini gives the proverb in the original words. Thevenot, iii. partie
p. 124.

290 Travels of Marco Polo

city, distant from it only a day s journey, named Va-giu,
where, likewise, there is a vast abundance of raw silk, and
where there are many merchants as well as artificers. Silks
of the finest quality are woven here, and are afterwards carried
to every part of the province. 1 No other circumstances pre
senting themselves as worthy of remark, we shall now proceed
to the description of the principal city and metropolis of the
province of Manji, named Kin-sai.

CHAPTER LXVIII

OF THE NOBLE AND MAGNIFICENT CITY OF KIN-SAI

i. UPON leaving Va-giu you pass, in the course of three days
journey, many towns, castles, and villages, all of them well
inhabited and opulent. The people are idolaters, and the
subjects of the grand khan, and they use paper money and
have abundance of provisions. At the end of three days you
reach the noble and magnificent city of Kin-sai, a name that
signifies " the celestial city," and which it merits from its pre
eminence to all others in the world, in point of grandeur and
beauty, as well as from its abundant delights, which might
lead an inhabitant to imagine himself in paradise. 2 This city
was frequently visited by Marco Polo, 3 who carefully and
diligently observed and inquired into every circumstance
respecting it, all of which he entered in his notes, from whence
the following particulars are briefly stated. According to

1 The city of Va-gie, of which no mention is made in the other ver
sions, must be either Ho-cheu, situated on the side of Lake Tai, opposite
to that on which Su-cheu stands, or else (and more probably) the city
called Kia-hing in modern times, and formerly Siu-cheu, which is in the
direct line of the canal, and midway between Su-cheu and Hang-cheu.
Both of them are celebrated for the richness of their commerce, particu-

arly in silk, both raw and manufactured.

2 At the time when this city, the capital of Southern China under the
dynasty of the Song, was surrendered to the arms of Kublai, the Chinese
annals call it by the name of Lin-gnan. This was changed by the Ming
for that of Hang-cheu, which it had borne at an earlier period, and which
it still retains. Quinsai, Kin-sai, or, according to De Guignes, Kin-tsay,
must therefore be considered only as a descriptive appellation, grounded,
perhaps, upon the proverbial saying already noticed, which terms it a
celestial abode, although the meaning of the component words may not
be precisely that which our author has assigned to them.

3 The city of Yang-cheu-fu, of which he was the provisional governor
for three years, being distant only about a week s journey, by the canal,
from Hang-cheu-fu, he had consequently the opportunity of occasional
intercourse with that capital.

The City of Kin-sai 291

common estimation, this city is an hundred miles in circuit. 1
Its streets and canals are extensive, and there are squares, or
market-places, which, being necessarily proportioned in size
to the prodigious concourse of people by whom they are fre
quented, are exceedingly spacious. It is situated between a
lake of fresh and very clear water on the one side, 2 and a river
of great magnitude on the other, the waters of which, by a
number of canals, large and small, are made to run through
every quarter of the city, carrying with them all the filth into
the lake, and ultimately to the sea. 3 This, whilst it contributes
much to the purity of the air, furnishes a communication by
water, in addition to that by land, to all parts of the town;
the canals and the streets being of sufficient width to allow of
boats on the one, and carriages in the other, conveniently

1 These dimensions, taken in their literal sense, must be regarded as
extravagant, even although they should be understood to include the
suburbs; but there has already been frequent occasion to remark, that
when, in describing the size of places, our author speaks of miles, he
must be supposed to mean Chinese miles, or li, which are to the Italian
in the proportion of three to eight. Even such an extent might seem
excessive, were it not that the walls even of the modern city are esti
mated by travellers at sixty li, and that, if in the course of five centuries
they have undergone alterations, it is to be presumed their limits may
have been considerably contracted. It is rarely indeed that strangers
can have the opportunity of measuring the works of fortified places:
they must derive their information from the natives, who, from ignorance
or vanity, are likely to deceive them.

2 The lake here spoken of is the Si-hu, or " western lake," so called
from it* being situated on the western side of the city. Although
inconsiderable in point of extent, it is highly celebrated by all travellers
on account of the beauty of its surrounding scenery, and the peculiar
transparency of its waters. The lake," says Staunton, " formed
a beautiful sheet of water, about three or four miles in diameter, and
surrounded to the north, east, and south by an amphitheatre of pic
turesque mountains. ... It was in most places shallow, the water per
fectly pellucid, and the bottom gravelly." (P. 444.) " The water,"
says Barrow, who made an excursion on it, " was as clear as crystal."
P. 524-

3 The river upon which this ancient capital of southern China stands
is the Tsien-tang-kiang. ; The tide," says Staunton, " increases the
width of this river to about four miles opposite the city. At low water
there is a fine level strand near two miles broad, which extends towards
the sea as far as the eye can reach." (P. 438.) According to the words
of our author there appears to have been, in his time, a passage of water
from the river, through the numerous canals of the city, into the lake.
This would take place at the flood tide; and at the ebb, through the same
channels, there would be a reflux from the lake into the river, necessary
for the purpose of cleansing them. But in the modern accounts of Hang-
cheu-fu no mention is made of any such communication between the
river and the city or the lake, and to account for the disagreement we
might be led to conclude that from the receding of the sea, or other
natural causes, a change of circumstances may have been produced in
so long a course of time.

292 Travels of Marco Polo

passing, with articles necessary for the consumption of the
inhabitants. 1 It is commonly said that the number of bridges,
of all sizes, amounts to twelve thousand. 2 Those which are
thrown over the principal canals and are connected with the
main streets, have arches so high, and built with so much skill,
that vessels with their masts can pass under them, 3 whilst, at
the same time, carts and horses are passing over their heads,
so well is the slope from the street adapted to the height of the
arch. If they were not in fact so numerous, there would be no
convenience of crossing from one place to another.

2. Beyond the city, and enclosing it on that side, there is
a fosse about forty miles in length, very wide, and full of water
that comes from the river before mentioned. This was ex
cavated by the ancient kings of the province, in order that
when the river should overflow its banks, the superfluous
water might be diverted into this channel ; and to serve at the
same time as a measure of defence. 4 The earth dug out from

1 All the modern accounts of this city concur in describing its numerous
canals, but they likewise insist upon the narrowness of its paved streets.
Our author, it is true, in a subsequent part of his description, speaks of
the principal street as being forty paces in width (about equal to that of
Pekin); but it must be considered that at the period when he wrote,
Hang-cheu still retained the magnificence of a great capital and imperial
residence, and that in a country repeatedly ravaged by foreign and
domestic conquerors, it cannot be supposed to have escaped repeated
destruction, nor, when renewed, to have assumed, in the new arrange
ment of its streets, any other character than that of a provincial city,
although of the first class.

2 Amongst the exaggerations imputed to our author, in his account of
China, none has been more commonly pointed out by those who take a
part against him, than this assertion, that a city, whatever its extent
and magnificence might be, should have contained twelve thousand
bridges. It cannot be denied that the truth is here outstepped; but it
must be recollected that he does not state the fact upon the authority of
any enumeration of his own, but merely as the popular story (e fama is
the expression) related by the inhabitants of the place, whose vanity,
in this and other instances, led them to impose upon admiring credulity.

3 " Outre ces digues," says P. Le Comte, speaking of the grand canal,
" on a basti une infinite de ponts pour la communication des terres:
ils sont de trois, de cinq, et de sept arches; celle du milieu est extra-
ordinairement haute, afin que les barques en passant, ne soient pas
obligees d abaisser leurs masts." (Nouv. Mem. de la Chine, torn. i. p.
161.) " De tous les environs," says Du Halde, in his description of a
neighbouring city, " on peut venir, entrer, et aller dans toute la ville en
bateau. II n y a point de rue ou il n y ait un canal; c est pourquoi il y
a quantite de ponts qui sont fort eleves, et presque tous d une seule
arche." (Tom. i. p. 179.) But most directly to our purpose is Barrow s
observation, that " over this main trunk and most of the other canals
and rivers, are a great variety of bridges. . . . Some have the piers of
such an extraordinary height, that the largest vessels, of two hundred
tons, sail under them without striking their masts." P. 337.

4 The existence of this fosse, commencing at the lake, and terminating
at the river, may be traced in Du H aide s plan of the city. Its length

The City of Kin-sai 293

thence was thrown to the inner side, and has the appearance of
many hillocks surrounding the place. There are within the
city ten principal squares or market-places, besides innumer
able shops along the streets. Each side of these squares is half
a mile in length, 1 and in front of them is the main street, forty
paces in width, and running in a direct line from one ex
tremity of the city to the other. It is crossed by many low
and convenient bridges. These market-squares (two miles
in their whole dimension) are at the distance of four miles from
each other. In a direction parallel to that of the main street,
but on the opposite side of the squares, runs a very large canal,
on the nearer bank of which capacious warehouses are built of
stone, for the accommodation of the merchants who arrive
from India and other parts, together with their goods and
effects, in order that they may be conveniently situated with
respect to the market-places. 2 In each of these, upon three
days in every week, there is an assemblage of from forty to fifty
thousand persons, who attend the markets and supply them
with every article of provision that can be desired. There is
an abundant quantity of game of all kinds, such as roebucks,
stags, fallow deer, hares, and rabbits, together with partridges,
pheasants, francolins, quails, common fowls, capons, and such
numbers of ducks and geese as can scarcely be expressed; for
so easily are they bred and reared on the lake, that, for the
value of a Venetian silver groat, you may purchase a couple of
geese and two couple of ducks. 3 There, also, are the shambles,

there appears to exceed the proportion here assigned of four- tenths of
the whole extent of the walls, but all the plans in that collection are
without scale, and seem to have been drawn by Chinese artists, from
memory rather than from actual survey. With regard to the object of
this excavation, it may rather be thought intended to carry off the over
flowings of the lake, than to receive those of the river, and Staunton
accordingly speaks of the stream that flows through it at ordinary times,
as being supplied from the former.

1 The interior of this and of every other Chinese city must have under
gone an entire change since the days of our author, and the bazars or
market-places here mentioned are unnoticed by modern travellers.
According to the length of the Chinese li, as established by the most
accurate writers, at 296 French toises, each side of these squares would
be about. 320 English yards, and their distance from each other about
2,560.

The regulations of the Chinese government with regard to foreign
commerce appear to have been nearly the same, at a remote period, as
those to which the European concerns at the port of Canton are sub
jected at the present day.

3 Perhaps instead of the conjunction copulative " and," we should
here read the disjunctive " or," and consider two of the smaller of these
aquatic birds as an equivalent for one of the larger.

294 Travels of Marco Polo

where they slaughter cattle for food, such as oxen, calves, kids,
and lambs, to furnish the t ibles of rich persons and of the great
magistrates. As to people of the lower classes, they do not
scruple to eat every other kind of flesh, however unclean,
without any discrimination. 1 At all seasons there is in the
markets a great variety of herbs and fruits, and especially
pears of an extraordinary size, weighing ten pounds each, that
are white in the inside, like paste, and have a very fragrant
smell. 2 There are peaches also, in their season, both of the
yellow and the white kind, 3 and of a delicious flavour. Grapes
are not produced there, but are brought in a dried state, and
very good, from other parts. This applies also to wine, which
the natives do not hold in estimation, being accustomed to
their own liquor prepared from rice and spices. From the sea,
which is fifteen miles distant, there is daily brought up the
river, to the city, a vast quantity of fish; and in the lake also
there is abundance, which gives employment at all times to
persons whose sole occupation it is to catch them. The sorts

1 Staunton observes, that " of the larger kind (of quadrupeds) the
common people have little opportunity of ever tasting, unless of such
as die by accident or disease. In such cases the appetite of a Chinese
surmounts all scruple; whether it be an ox or camel, a sheep or ass, it is
equally acceptable. This people know no distinction of clean and un
clean meat. . . . Quadrupeds that can find some resources for subsistence
about dwelling-houses, such as hogs and dogs, are the most common
animal food, and are sold at the public markets." (P. 399.) The
Arabian travellers of the ninth century notice in like manner the indis
criminate style of feeding to which the Chinese were addicted in their
days.

2 Pears of the weight of ten pounds are, it must be confessed, an extra
ordinary production of nature, and must have been of a kind still un
known in Europe, where, I believe, the largest are not found to exceed
two pounds; nor have I been able to ascertain the weight of any pear
grown in England, exceeding twenty-six ounces. It is well known,
indeed, that the varieties of the pyrus, as well as of other fruits, not only
degenerate in size and quality, but in a long course of years actually
become extinct. But the credibility of our author s assertion does not
rest for support upon the mere presumption of what might have been
the state of Chinese horticulture in the thirteenth century; for we learn
from the accounts of modern travellers that pears of uncommon magni
tude are still produced in the eastern provinces of China. Mr. Henry
Browne, who for many years filled the situation of Chief of the Company s
factory at Canton, assured Mr. Marsden that he had seen pears, supposed
to have been produced in the province of Fo-kien, the bulk of which
equalled that of a moderate sized wine decanter. What is said of their
inner substance resembling paste, is meant to describe that quality
which Van Braam terms fondante or melting, and which De Guignes,
speaking of the same fruit, expresses by beurree. The latter pronounces
them to be " fort grosses et excellentes." -Tom. iii. p. 355.

8 By peaches of the yellow kind it may be conjectured that our author
means apricots, which, as well as peaches, are the produce of that part
of China. No mention is made of oranges.

Produce and Manufactures of Kin-sai 295

are various according to the season of the year, and, in conse
quence of the offal carried thither from the town, they become
large and rich. At the sight of such an importation of fish,
you would think it impossible that it could be sold; and yet,
in the course of a few hours, it is all taken off, so great is the
number of inhabitants, even of those classes which can afford
to indulge in such luxuries, for fish and flesh are eaten at the
same meal. Each of the ten market-squares is surrounded
with high dwelling-houses, 1 in the lower part of which are
shops, where every kind of manufacture is carried on, and
every article of trade is sold; such, amongst others, as spices,
drugs, trinkets, and pearls. In certain shops nothing is
vended but the wine of the country, which they are continu
ally brewing, and serve out fresh to their customers at a
moderate price. The streets connected with the market-
squares are numerous, and in some of them are many cold
baths, attended by servants of both sexes, to perform the
offices of ablution for the men and women who frequent them,
and who from their childhood have been accustomed at all
times to wash in cold water, which they reckon highly con
ducive to health. At these bathing places, however, they
have apartments provided with warm water, for the use of
strangers, who, from not being habituated to it, cannot bear
the shock of the cold. All are in the daily practice of washing
their persons, and especially before their meals.

3. In other streets are the habitations of the courtesans,
who are here in such numbers as I dare not venture to report :
and not only near the squares, which is the situation usually
appropriated for their residence, but in every part of the city
they are to be found, adorned with much finery, highly per
fumed, occupying well-furnished houses, and attended by
many female domestics. 2 These women are accomplished,

1 The generality of Chinese houses having only one floor, those which
are raised to a second story may, comparatively, be termed case alte.

z At Kanbalu, or Pekin, it was the custom in our author s time, as it
is at the present day, to restrict the residence of the public women to the
suburbs of the city, where the numerous strangers who resort to the
capital were likewise quartered. Here, on the other hand, they are
described as inhabiting the most frequented parts of the town, and es
pecially the vicinity of the squares or bazars, as if the accommodation of
the foreign merchants, in this respect also, was particularly consulted.
Ces femmes (says the second of the Arabian travellers, after ex
plaining the manner in which they were registered and licensed by the
officers of government) " marchent les soirs habiilees d estoffes (silks) de
diverses couleurs, et elles ne portent point de voiles. Elles s abandon-
nent a tous les estrangers nouvellement arrives dans le pafe, lors qu ils

296

Travels of Marco Polo

and are perfect in the arts of blandishment and dalliance,
which they accompany with expressions adapted to every
description of person, insomuch that strangers who have once
tasted of their charms, remain in a state of fascination, and
become so enchanted by their meretricious arts, that they can
never divest themselves of the impression. Thus intoxicated
with sensual pleasures, when they return to their homes they
report that they have been in Kin-sai, or the celestial city, and
pant for the time when they may be enabled to revisit paradise.
In other streets are the dwellings of the physicians and the
astrologers, who also give instructions in reading and writing,
as well as in many other arts. They have apartments also
amongst those which surround the market-squares. On
opposite sides of each of these squares there are two large
edifices, where officers appointed by the grand khan are
stationed, to take immediate cognisance of any differences
that may happen to arise between the foreign merchants, or
amongst the inhabitants of the place. It is their duty like
wise to see that the guards upon the several bridges in their
respective vicinities (of whom mention shall be made here
after) are duly placed, and in cases of neglect, to punish the
delinquents at their discretion. 1

On each side of the principal street, already mentioned as
extending from one end of the city to the other, there are
houses and mansions of great size, with their gardens, and near
to these, the dwellings of the artisans, who work in shops, at
their several trades ; and at all hours you see such multitudes
of people passing and repassing, on their various avocations,
that the providing food in sufficiency for their maintenance
might be deemed an impossibility; 2 but other ideas will be
formed when it is observed that, on every market-day, the
squares are crowded with tradespeople, who cover the whole
space with the articles brought by carts and boats, for all of
which they find a sale. By instancing the single article of

aiment la desbauche. Les Chinois les font venir chez eux, et elles n en
sortent que le matin. Louons Dieu, de ce qu il nous a exemptez de sem-
blables infamies." Anc. Relat. p. 57.

1 In the account given by De Guignes of the several ranks of civil
mandarins or magistrates (kouan), he mentions le nan-hay, chef de
police, et ses assesseurs ou lieutenants de quartiers. 7 The officers spoken
of in the text were probably of this latter class.

2 " It was difficult," says Staunton, to pass along the streets, on
account of the vast concourse of people not assembled merely to see the
strangers, or on any other public occasion, but each individual going
about his own concerns." P. 439.

The Inhabitants of Kin-sai 297

pepper, some notion may be formed of the whole quantity of
provisions, meat, wine, groceries, and the like, required for the
consumption of the inhabitants of Kin-sai ; and of this, Marco
Polo learned from an officer employed in the grand khan s
customs, the daily amount was forty-three loads, each load
being two hundred and forty-three pounds. 1

4. The inhabitants of the city are idolaters, and they use
paper money as currency. The men as well as the women have
fair complexions, and are handsome. The greater part of
them are always clothed in silk, in consequence of the vast
quantity of that material produced in the territory of Kin-sai,
exclusively of what the merchants import from other pro
vinces. 2 Amongst the handicraft trades exercised in the
place, there are twelve considered to be superior to the rest,
as being more generally useful; for each of which there are a
thousand workshops, and each shop furnishes employment
for ten, fifteen, or twenty workmen, and in a few instances as
many as forty, under their respective masters. The opulent
principals in these manufactories do not labour with their own
hands, but, on the contrary, assume airs of gentility and affect
parade. Their wives equally abstain from work. They have
much beauty, as has been remarked, and are brought up witb
delicate and languid habits. 3 The costliness of their dresses,

1 As our author professes to have obtained his information on this
head from an officer of the customs, it follows that the quantity of pepper
stated in the text was that of the importation (which alone could come
under his cognisance), and not the quantity consumed in the city; with
which, however, it was not unlikely to be confounded in the mind of the
former. The daily entry being stated at 10,449 Iks., the annual quantity
would be 3,813,885 Ibs., or (at the customary rate of 16 cwt. to the ton,
in this article) about 2,130 tons. This may be thought large, but in a
paper drawn up by Mr. F. Pigou, and published in Dalrymple s Oriental
Repertory (vol. ii. p. 305), it is asserted that " the usual import, at all the
trading ports of China, is about 40,000 peculs, or, at 133 Ibs. to the pecul,
about 3,000 tons. Les Hollandois et ies Anglois," says De Guignes,
speaking of the modern commerce of the Chinese, " ont vendu 1,465,053
livres pesant de ppiyre, 46,371 livres de girofle, et 8,979 livres de muscade.
Cette quantite d epiceries, si Ton considere la population de la Chine, est
plus qu insuffisante, et n est rien en raison de ce que 1 empire devroit con-
summer." (Tom. iii. p. 304.) In regard to the inadequacy of this
importation it should be observed, that it is not upon the European
trade alone the Chinese depend for their supplies of pepper. Their junks
frequent many of the eastern islands, and at the port of Borneo Proper, in
particular, annually take on board large cargoes of that article.

3 " The flowered and embroidered satins, and other branches in the
manufacture of silk, every part of which is done by women, occupy,"
says Staunton, vast numbers of them in Han-choo-foo. Most of the
men were gaily dressed; and appeared to be in comfortable circum
stances." Embassy, vol. ii. p. 439.

3 The softness of feature, delicacy of shape, and languid habits of the

2 9 8

Travels of Marco Polo

in silks and jewellery, can scarcely be imagined. Although
the laws of their ancient kings ordained that each citizen should
exercise the profession of his father, yet they were allowed,
when they acquired wealth, to discontinue the manual labour,
provided they kept up the establishment, and employed per
sons to work at their paternal trades. 1 Their houses are well
built and richly adorned with carved work. So much do they
delight in ornaments of this kind, in paintings, and fancy
buildings, that the sums they lavish on such objects are enor
mous. The natural disposition of the native inhabitants of
Kin-sai is pacific, and by the example of their former kings,
who were themselves unwarlike, they have been accustomed
to habits of tranquillity. The management of arms is un
known to them, nor do they keep any in their houses. 2 Con
tentious broils are never heard among them. 3 They conduct
their mercantile and manufacturing concerns with perfect
candour and probity. 4 They are friendly towards each other,

Chinese women of superior rank, may be observed in their paintings.
" Though the ladies," says Staunton, " reckon corpulence a beauty in a
man, they consider it as a palpable blemish in their own sex, and aim at
preserving a slimness and delicacy of shape." (P. 440.) The practice
of reducing the size and impeding the use of their feet, by early bandaging,
is not adverted to by our author, unless he may be thought to have had
it in view when he employed the phrase " allevate morbidamente." In
respect to this and some other instances of extraordinary peculiarities,
(such as the growth of the finger-nails to the length of two or three inches,
and the preserving them in cases,) he may have been doubtful of gaining
credit, or apprehensive of being exposed to ridicule, should he relate them
as facts. It may also admit of question whether such fashions did
actually prevail at that period.

1 If this hereditary exercise of professions was anciently a custom
amongst the Chinese, as it is with the people of India, it must be allowed
that the traces of it are not apparent in modern times.

2 The unwarlike disposition and habits of the Chinese are generally
known; yet in the defence of their towns they have on many occasions
shown the highest degree of patriotic and desperate resolution; nor
would the Mungals have effected the subjugation of the country, if the
people had not been betrayed by their superior officers.

3 The exterior deportment of these people is grave and placid, but
their temper is naturally irascible and vindictive, and the infrequency
of broils is chiefly to be attributed to a rigorous police.

4 To this character for probity it may be thought that the Chinese
traders of the present day have little claim, as all our accounts of theii
manners abound with stories of the ingenious frauds practised at Can
ton upon the less cunning Europeans; but these apply chiefly to the
lower class of dealers, who, perhaps, if they could be heard in their own
defence, might justify their knavery upon the principle of retaliation.
In the long-continued intercourse that has subsisted between the agents
of the European companies and the more eminent of the Chinese mer
chants, whatever injustice the former may have experienced from the
effects of court intrigue, complaints on the ground of commercial unfair
ness have been extremely rare, and on the contrary their transactions
have been marked with the most perfect good faith and mutual confidence.

Character of the People of Kin-sai 299

and persons who inhabit the same street, both men and women,
from the mere circumstance of neighbourhood, appear like one
family. In their domestic manners they are free from jealousy
or suspicion of their wives, to whom great respect is shown, and
any man would be accounted infamous who should presume
to use indecent expressions to a married woman. To strangers
also, who visit their city in the way of commerce, they give
proofs of cordiality, inviting them freely to their houses, show
ing them hospitable attention, and furnishing them with the
best advice and assistance in their mercantile transactions.
On the other hand, they dislike the sight of soldiery, not
excepting the guards of the grand khan, as they preserve the
recollection that by them they were deprived of the govern
ment of their native kings and rulers.

5. On the borders of the lake are many handsome and
spacious edifices belonging to men of rank and great magis
trates. There are likewise many idol temples, with their
monasteries, occupied by a number of monks, who perform
the service of the idols. 1 Near the central part are two islands,
upon each of which stands a superb building, with an incredible
number of apartments and separate pavilions. When the
inhabitants of the city have occasion to celebrate a wedding,
or to give a sumptuous entertainment, they resort to one of
these islands, where they find ready for their purpose every
article that can be required, such as vessels, napkins, table-
linen, and the like, which are provided and kept there at the
common expense of the citizens, by whom also the buildings
were erected. It may happen that at one time there are a
hundred parties assembled there, at wedding or other feasts,
all of whom, notwithstanding, are accommodated with separate
rooms or pavilions, so judiciously arranged that they do not
interfere with or incommode each other. In addition to this,
there are upon the lake a great number of pleasure vessels or
barges, calculated for holding ten, fifteen, to twenty persons,
being from fifteen to twenty paces in length, with a wide and

1 " The lake," says Staunton, * formed a beautiful sheet of water,
about three or four miles in diameter, and surrounded, to the north,
east, and south, by an amphitheatre of mountains, between the base of
which and the margin of the lake, the narrow slip of level ground was
laid out in a pleasing style suitable to the situation. It was ornamented
with houses and gardens of mandarins, as well as a palace belonging to
the emperor, together with temples, monasteries for the hoshaung or
priests of Fo, and a number of light and fanciful stone bridges that are
thrown across the arms of the lake. . . . Upon the summit also were
erected pagodas, one of which attracted particular attention." P. 444.

300 Travels of Marco Polo

flat flooring, and not liable to heel to either side in passing
through the water. Such persons as take delight in the amuse
ment, and mean to enjoy it, either in the company of their
women or that of their male companions, engage one of these
barges, which are always kept in the nicest order, with proper
seats and tables, together with every other kind of furniture
necessary for giving an entertainment. The cabins have a
flat roof or upper deck, where the boatmen take their place, and
by means of long poles, which they thrust to the bottom of
the lake (not more than one or two fathoms in depth), they
shove the barges along, until they reach the intended spot.
These cabins are painted within-side of various colours and
with a variety of figures; all parts of the vessel are likewise
adorned with painting. 1 There are windows on each side,
which may either be kept shut, or opened, to give an oppor
tunity to the company, as they sit at table, of looking out in
every direction and feasting their eyes on the variety and
beauty of the scenes as they pass them. And truly the gratifi
cation afforded in this manner, upon the water, exceeds any
that can be derived from the amusements on the land; for as
the lake extends the whole length of the city, on one side, you
have a view, as you stand in the boat, at a certain distance
from the shore, of all its grandeur and beauty, its palaces,
temples, convents, and gardens, with trees of the largest size
growing down to the water s edge, whilst at the same time you
enjoy the sight of other boats of the same description, con
tinually passing you, filled in like manner with parties in
pursuit of amusement. In fact, the inhabitants of this place,
as soon as the labours of the day have ceased, or their mercan
tile transactions are closed, think of nothing else than of pass
ing the remaining hours in parties of pleasure, with their wives
or their mistresses, either in these barges, or about the city in
carriages, of which it will here be proper to give some account,
as constituting one of the amusements of these people.

It must be observed, in the first place, that the streets of

1 " Nayires," says P. Martini, " qu on pourroit appeller avec raison
des palais dores, parce qu ils sont peints de diverses couleurs, et que
tout y brille du plus fin et du meilleur or: de sorte que c est la ou la
magnificence et la pompe des festins, des spectacles, et des jeux eclatent
tous les jours. Ces Chinois de Hang-cheu, qui sont autant d esclaves de
la volupte, y trouvent en abondance tout ce qu ils peuvent souhaiter."
(P. 141.) " Vast numbers of barges," says Barrow, speaking of the
same lake, " were sailing to and fro, all gaily decorated with paint and
gilding and streaming colours; the parties within them apparently alJ
in pursuit of pleasure." P. 524.

The Streets of Kin-sai 301

Kin-sai are all paved with stones and bricks, and so likewise
are all the principal roads extending from thence through the
province of Manji, by means of which passengers can travel
to every part without soiling their feet; but as the couriers of
his majesty, who go on horseback with great speed, cannot
make use of the pavement, a part of the road, on one side, is on
their account left unpaved. The main street of the city, of
which we have before spoken, as leading from one extremity
to the other, is paved with stone and brick to the width of ten
paces on each side, the intermediate part being filled up with
small gravel, and provided with arched drains for carrying off
the rain-water that falls, into the neighbouring canals, so that
it remains always dry. On this gravel it is that the carriages
are continually passing and repassing. They are of a long
shape, covered at top, have curtains and cushions of silk, and
are capable of holding six persons. Both men and women who
feel disposed to take their pleasure, are in the daily practice of
hiring them for that purpose, and accordingly at every hour
you may see vast numbers of them driven along the middle
part of the street. 1 Some of them proceed to visit certain gar
dens, where the company are introduced, by those who have
the management of the place, to shady recesses contrived by
the gardeners for that purpose; and here the men indulge
themselves all day in the society of their women, returning
home, when it becomes late, in the manner they came.

6. It is the custom of the people of Kin-sai, upon the birth
of a child, for the parents to make a note, immediately, of the
day, hour, and minute at which the delivery took place. They
then inquire of an astrologer under what sign or aspect of the
heavens the child was born; and his answer is likewise com
mitted carefully to writing. When therefore he is grown up,
and is about to engage in any mercantile adventure, voyage,
or treaty of marriage, this document is carried to the astrologer,
who, having examined it, and weighed all the circumstances,

1 The carriages which stand for hire in the streets of Pekin are of a
smaller size than these described by our author, but in other respects
the construction is the same. See plate 41, of those annexed to M. De
Guignes work, where it will be observed that the carriages nearly re
semble what we term in England a tilted cart. As the habits of the
ancient Chinese capital were much more luxurious than those of Pekin
under the Tartar dominion, at any period, we may conclude that the
vehicles of the former were fitted up with more attention to ease and
convenience, as well as with more splendour, than the clumsy machines
above described. Staunton, indeed, speaks of " cushions stuffed with
cotton, and covered with silk, to sit upon," in the waggons of Hang-
cheu-fu. P. 447-

302 Travels of Marco Polo

pronounces certain oracular words, in which these people, who
sometimes find them justified by the event, place great con
fidence. Of these astrologers, or rather magicians, great num
bers are to be met with in every market-place, and no marriage
is ever celebrated until an opinion has been pronounced upon
it by one of that profession.

It is also their custom, upon the death of any great and rich
personage, to observe the following ceremonies. The relations,
male and female, clothe themselves in coarse dresses, and
accompany the body to the place appointed for burning it.
The procession is likewise attended by performers on various
musical instruments, which are sounded as it moves along, and
prayers to their idols are chanted in a loud voice. When arrived
at the spot, they throw into the flame many pieces of cotton-
paper, upon which are painted representations of male and
female servants, horses, camels, silk wrought with gold, as well
as of gold and silver money. This is done, in consequence of
their belief that the deceased will possess in the other world all
these conveniences, the former in their natural state of flesh
and bones, together with the money and the silks. As soon as
the pile has been consumed, they sound all the instruments of
music at the same time, producing a loud and long-continued
noise; and they imagine that by these ceremonies their idols
are induced to receive the soul of the man whose corpse has
been reduced to ashes, in order to its being regenerated in the
other world, and entering again into life.

7. In every street of this city there are stone buildings or
towers, to which, in case of a fire breaking out in any quarter
(an accident by no means unusual, as the houses are mostly
constructed of wood), the inhabitants may remove their effects
for security. By a regulation which his majesty has estab
lished, there is a guard of ten watchmen stationed, under
cover, upon all the principal bridges, of whom five do duty by
day and five by night. Each of these guard-rooms is provided
with a sonorous wooden instrument as well as one of metal,
together with a clepsydra (horiuolo), by means of which latter
the hours of the day and night are ascertained. 1 As soon as
the first hour of the night is expired, one of the watchmen gives
a single stroke upon the wooden instrument, and also upon the
metal gong (bacino), which announces to the people of the
neighbouring streets that it is the first hour. At the expira
tion of the second, two strokes are given; and so on progres-

1 This clepsydra, or water- clock, is noticed by more modern travellers.

Precautions against Fires 303

sively, increasing the number of strokes as the hours advance. 1
The guard is not allowed to sleep, and must be always on the
alert. In the morning, as soon as the sun begins to appear, a
single stroke is again struck, as in the evening, and so onwards
from hour to hour. Some of these watchmen patrol the streets,
to observe whether any person has a light or fire burning after
the hour appointed for extinguishing them. Upon making the
discovery, they affix a mark to the door, and in the morning
the owner of the house is taken before the magistrates, by
whom, if he cannot assign a legitimate excuse for his offence,
he is condemned to punishment. Should they find any person
abroad at an unseasonable hour, they arrest and confine him,
and in the morning he is carried before the same tribunal. If,
in the course of the day, they notice any person who from
lameness or other infirmity is unable to work, they place him
in one of the hospitals, of which there are several in every part
of the city, founded by the ancient kings, and liberally endowed.
When cured, he is obliged to work at some trade. Imme
diately upon the appearance of fire breaking out in a house,
they give the alarm by beating on the wooden machine, when
the watchmen from all the bridges within a certain distance
assemble to extinguish it, as well as to save the effects of the
merchants and others, by removing them to the stone towers
that have been mentioned. The goods are also sometimes
put into boats, and conveyed to the islands in the lake. Even
on such occasions the inhabitants dare not stir out of their
houses, when the fire happens in the night-time, and only

1 " On distingue ordinairement," says Le Comte, " cinq (veilles de
la nuit) qui commencent a sept ou huit heures du soir. Au commence
ment de la premiere on frappe un seul coup, un moment apres on re
double encore, ce qu on repete continuellement durant deux heures,
jusqu a la seconde veilie. Car alors on frappe deux coups, et on continue
toujours a frapper jusqu a la troisieme veilie, etc. . . . augmentant le
nombre des coups, a mesure qu on passe d une veilie a 1 autre, de sorte
que ce sont autant d horloges a repetition, qui font connoistre a tout
moment quelle heure il est. On sert encore pour marquer les mesmes
veilles d un tambour, d une grandeur extraordinaire, sur lequel on
frappe toute la nuit selon les mesmes proportions." (Tom. i. p. 127.)
This continued repetition of the strokes, during the intervals of the
several watches (similar to calling the hours in the streets of our own
metropolis), is not stated in the text. The practice may have undergone
a change; but it seems more likely that our author s words may have
been misunderstood by those who, being accustomed to the mechanical
striking of a town-clock, have brought his meaning to that standard.
It is remarkable at the same time, that what P. Le Comte has so dis
tinctly explained is not adverted to in the journals of the late embassies.
" La premiere veilie," says De Guignes, " s annonce par un coup de tam
bour; la troisieme, par trois coups, et ainsi de suite." Tom. ii. p. 426.

304 Travels of Marco Polo

those can be present whose goods are actually removing,
together with the guard collected to assist, which seldom
amounts to a smaller number than from one to two thousand
men. In cases also of tumult or insurrection amongst the
citizens, the services of this police guard are necessary; but,
independently of them, his majesty always keeps on foot a
large body of troops, both infantry and cavalry, in the city and
its vicinity, the command of which he gives to his ablest officers,
and those in whom he can place the greatest confidence, on
account of the extreme importance of this province, and
especially its noble capital, which surpasses in grandeur and
wealth every other city in the world. For the purposes of
nightly watch, there are mounds of earth thrown up, at the
distance of above a mile from each other, on the top of which a
wooden frame is constructed, with a sounding board, which
being struck with a mallet by the guard stationed there, the
noise is heard to a great distance. If precautions of this
nature were not taken upon occasions of fire, there would be
danger of half the city being consumed; and their use is
obvious also in the event of popular commotion, as, upon the
signal being given, the guards at the several bridges arm them
selves, and repair to the spot where their presence is required.

8. When the grand khan reduced to his obedience the
province of Manji, which until that time had been one king
dom, he thought proper to divide it into nine parts, 1 over each
of which he appointed a king or viceroy, who should act as
supreme governor of that division, and administer justice to
the people. 2 These make a yearly report to commissioners
acting for his majesty, of the amount of the revenue, as well as
of every other matter pertaining to their jurisdiction. Upon

1 There is reason to believe that the boundaries of the several pro
vinces were not, in former times, exactly the same as we find them at
present. Generally, however, these nine parts into which Manji, or
Southern China, was divided, may be considered as the provinces of
Kiang-nan, Kiang-si, Che-kiang, Fo-kien, Kuan-tong, Kuang-si, Koei-
cheu, Hu-kuang, and Ho-nan. Cathay or Khataii appears to have con
sisted of Pe-che-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si, and the eastern part of Shen-si.
The remaining provinces of the fifteen, namely Se-chuen and Yun-nan,
as well as the western portion of Shen-si, had been but imperfectly
subdued by the Chinese emperors, and seem not to have belonged, in
our author s time, to either of the two grand divisions.

2 The great officer or mandarin, here styled a king (re), or, more pro
perly, viceroy, is by the Chinese termed tsong-tu; of whom there are
eleven throughout the empire; some of them having jurisdiction over
more than one province. The proper governor of each province is named
/u-yuen, whom the missionaries frequently style the viceroy, although
avowedly subordinate to the former

Government of Kin-sai 305

the third year they are changed, as are all other public officers.
One of these nine viceroys resides and holds his court in the
city of Kin-sai, and has authority over more than a hundred
and forty cities and towns, all large and rich. 1 Nor is this
number to be wondered at, considering that in the whole of the
province of Manji there are no fewer than twelve hundred,
containing a large population of industrious and wealthy in
habitants. 2 In each of these, according to its size and other
circumstances, his majesty keeps a garrison, consisting, in some
places, of a thousand, in others of ten or twenty thousand men,
accordingly as he judges the city to be, in its own population,
more or less powerful. It is not to be understood that all these
troops are Tartars. On the contrary, they are chiefly natives
of the province of Cathay. The Tartars are universally horse
men, and cavalry cannot be quartered about those cities which
stand in the low, marshy parts of the province, but only in firm,
dry situations, where such troops can be properly exercised.
To the former, he sends Cathaians, and such men of the pro
vince of Manji as appear to have a military turn; for it is his
practice to make an annual selection amongst all his subjects of
such as are best qualified to bear arms ; and these he enrolls to
serve in his numerous garrisons, that may be considered as so
many armies. But the soldiers drawn from the province of
Manji he does not employ in the duty of their native cities; on

1 This number much exceeds what is allotted to the jurisdiction of any
of the great cities at the present day; but it must be considered that
Hang-cheu-fu had then recently been the capital of the proper Chinese
empire, and its municipal influence might not have been brought down
to the level of other provincial cities.

2 According to Du Halde s list, the nine provinces of the south-eastern
part of China contain 101 cities of the first class, 84 of the second, and
625 of the third, making together 810 cities; independently of any por
tions of Yun-nan or Se-chuen that might then have belonged to the king
dom of Manji. This, it will be seen, does not fall very far short of our
author s statement, who might, besides, have intended to include some
populous towns of the fourth order. With respect to those of the third,
Du Halde observes: " Quand on parle de hien ou ville du troisieme ordre,
il ne faut pas s imaginer que ce soit un district de peu d etendue: il y
a tel hien qui a 60, 70, et meme 80 lieues de circuit, et que paye Pem-
pereur plusieurs millions de tribut." (Tom. i. p. 2.) P. Le Comte
makes the number of cities more considerable than Du Halde: " On les
divise ordinairement," he observes, " en trois ordres. Dans le premier,
il y en a plus de 160; dans le second 270, et dans le troisieme, pres de
1200; sans compter 300 autres villes murees qu on met hors de rang,
quoy qu elles soient presque toutes fort peuplees et qu on y fasse un
grand commerce." (Tom. i. p. 118.) This seems to exceed also the
enumeration of our author; but it must be recollected that the latter
speaks of Manji only, which excludes the three northern provinces of
China.

306

Travels of Marco Polo

the contrary, he marches them to others at the distance of per
haps twenty days journey, where they are continued for four
or five years, at the expiration of which they are allowed to
return to their homes, and others are sent to replace them.
This regulation applies equally to the Cathaians. The greater
part of the revenues of the cities, paid into the treasury of the
grand khan, is appropriated to the maintenance of these garri
sons. When it happens that a city is in a state of rebellion
(and it is not an uncommon occurrence for these people,
actuated by some sudden exasperation, or when intoxicated,
to murder their governors), a part of the garrison of a neigh
bouring city is immediately despatched with orders to destroy
the place where such guilty excesses have been committed;
whereas it would be a tedious operation to send an army from
another province, that might be two months on its march.
For such purposes, the city of Kin-sai constantly supports a
garrison of thirty thousand soldiers ; and the smallest number
stationed at any place is one thousand. 1

9. It now remains to speak of a very fine palace that was
formerly the residence of king Facfur, whose ancestors enclosed
with high walls an extent of ground ten miles in compass, and
divided it into three parts. That in the centre was entered by
a lofty portal, on each side of which was a magnificent colon
nade, on a flat terrace, the roofs of which were supported by
rows of pillars, highly ornamented with the most beautiful
azure and gold. The colonnade opposite to the entrance, at
the further side of the court, was still grander than the
others, its roof being richly adorned, the pillars gilt, and the
walls on the inner side ornamented with exquisite paint
ings, representing the histories of former kings. 2 Here,

1 That it should be found necessary to station an army of that number
of men in or near the populous capital of a newly-conquered empire is
by no means improbable; nor that a thousand men should at that period
have constituted the ordinary garrison of cities of the first or second
class; however deficient of troops they may be found (according to some
travellers) at the present time. In the seventeenth century, as we are
told by P. Le Comte, the garrison of Hang-cheu consisted of 10,000 men,
of whom 3,000 were Chinese. (Tom., i. p. 129.)

2 The plans of Chinese palaces seem nearly to resemble each other,
and particularly in respect to this kind of court on a raised terrace, in
front of the principal part of the building, where those persons assemble
whose rank entitles them to the privilege of paying their compliments
to the sovereign. In the " Gezandtschaft " of Nieuhof (p. 172) will be
found a representation of the anterior court of the palace of Pekin,
which Van Braarn commends for its fidelity. The hotel or palace of a
great officer of state, or wealthy individual, seems to be built upon the
same plan, and decorated in the same manner.

Luxurious Habits of King Facfur 307

annually , upon certain days consecrated to the service of their
idols, king Facfur was accustomed to hold his court, and to
entertain at a feast his principal nobles, the chief magistrates,
and the opulent citizens of Kin-sai. Under these colonnades
might be seen, at one time, ten thousand persons suitably
accommodated at table. This festival lasted ten or twelve
days, and the magnificence displayed on the occasion, in silks,
gold, and precious stones, exceeded all imagination; for every
guest, with a spirit of emulation, endeavoured to exhibit as
much finery as his circumstances would possibly allow. Be
hind the colonnade last mentioned, or that which fronted the
grand portal, there was a wall, with a passage, that divided
this exterior court of the palace from an interior court, which
foimed a kind of large cloister, with its rows of pillars sustain
ing a portico that surrounded it, and led to various apartments
for the use of the king and queen. These pillars were orna
mented in a similar manner, as were also the walls. From this
cloister you entered a covered passage or corridor, six paces in
width, and of such a length as to reach to the margin of the
lake. On each side of this there were corresponding entrances
to ten courts, in the form of long cloisters, surrounded by their
porticoes, and each cloister or court had fifty apartments,
with their respective gardens, the residence of a thousand
young women, whom the king retained in his service. 1 Accom
panied sometimes by his queen, and on other occasions by a
party of these females, it was his custom to take amusement
on the lake, in barges covered with silk, and to visit the idol
temples on its borders. The other two divisions of this seraglio
were laid out in groves, pieces of water, beautiful gardens
stored with fruit-trees, and also enclosures for all sorts of
animals that are the objects of sport, such as antelopes, deer,
stags, hares, and rabbits. Here likewise the king amused him
self, in company with his damsels, some in carriages and some
on horseback. No male person was allowed to be of these
parties, but on the other hand, the females were practised in
the art of coursing with dogs, and pursuing the animals that
have been mentioned. When fatigued with these exercises,
they retired into the groves on the banks of the lake, and there
quitting their dresses, rushed into the water in a state of
nudity, sportively swimming about, some in one direction and

Avant que les Tartares se fussent empares de 1 empire," says De
Guignes, " certains empereurs Chinois ont eu jusqu a dix mille femmes."
Tom. ii. p. 284.

3 o8

Travels of Marco Polo

some in another, whilst the king remained a spectator of the
exhibition. After this they returned to the palace. Some
times he ordered his repast to be provided in one of these
groves, where the foliage of lofty trees afforded a thick shade,
and was there waited upon by the same damsels. Thus was
his time consumed amidst the enervating charms of his women,
and in profound ignorance of whatever related to martial con
cerns, the consequence of which was, that his depraved habits
and his pusillanimity enabled the grand khan to deprive him of
his splendid possessions, and to expel him with ignominy from
his throne as has been already stated. All these particulars
were communicated to me, when I was in that city, by a rich
merchant of Kin-sai, then very old, who had been a confiden
tial servant of king Facfur, and was acquainted with every
circumstance of his life. 1 Having known the palace in its
original state, he was desirous of conducting me to view it.
Being at present the residence of the grand khan s viceroy, the
colonnades are preserved in the style in which they had
formerly subsisted, but the chambers of the females had been
suffered to go to ruin, and the foundations only were visible.
The wall likewise that enclosed the park and gardens was
fallen to decay, and neither animals nor trees were any longer
to be found there.

10. At the distance of twenty-five miles from this city, in a
direction to the northward of east, lies the sea, near to which is
a town named Gan-pu, where there is an extremely fine port,
frequented by all the ships that bring merchandise from India. 2
The river that flows past the city of Kin-sai forms this port, at
the place where it falls into the sea. Boats are continually
employed in the conveyance of goods up and down the river,
and those intended for exportation are there put on board of
ships bound to various parts of India and of Cathay.

Marco Polo, happening to be in the city of Kin-sai at the time
of making the annual report to his majesty s commissioners

1 Tu-tsong, the faghfur or emperor of the Song, here alluded to, having
ceased to reign in 1274, and the Polo family having quitted China in or
about the year 1291, our author might well have conversed with the
domestics of that prince, and particularly whilst he held the government
of Yang-cheu, in the adjoining province.

2 Gan-pu, here described as the seaport of Kin-sai or Hang-cheu,
answers to the port of Ning-po, situated on a river the entrance of which
is sheltered by the islands of Chu-san, where H.M. ship Lion and the
East India Company s ship Hindostan lay, in the year i?93- To those
islands Captain Macintosh, who had accompanied Lord Macartney, pro
ceeded from Hang-cheu-fu, to rejoin his ship, passing through Ning-po
in his route.

Population of Kin-sai 309

of the amount of revenue and the number of inhabitants, had
an opportunity of observing that the latter were registered at
one hundred and sixty tomans of fire-places,, that is to say, of
families dwelling under the same roof; and as a toman is^ten
thousand, it follows that the whole city must have contained
one million six hundred thousand families, 1 amongst which
multitude of people there was only one church of Nestorian
Christians. Every father of a family, or housekeeper, is
required to affix a writing to the door of his house, specifying
the name of each individual of his family, whether male or
female, as well as the number of his horses. When any person
dies, or leaves the dwelling, the name is struck out, and upon
the occasion of a birth, it is added to the list. By these means
the great officers of the province and governors of the cities are
at all times acquainted with the exact number of the inhabi
tants. The same regulation is observed throughout the
province of Cathay as well as of Manji. 2 In like manner, all
the keepers of inns and public hotels inscribe in a book the
names of those who take up their occasional abode with them,
particularising the day and the hour of their arrival and de
parture; a copy of which is transmitted daily to those magis
trates who have been spoken of as stationed in the market-
squares. It is a custom in the province of Manji, with the
indigent class of the people, who are unable to support their

1 This statement of the number of families in Hang-cheu, even admit
ting that the suburbs are meant to be included, appears excessive; but
it is unfair to measure the population of an ancient capital of China, by
the standard of a modern city. Yet Staunton observes that " its popu
lation is indeed immense; and is supposed to be not very much inferior
to that of Pekin," which he computes at about three millions; remarking,
at the same time, that few of the circumstances take place in the metro
polis of China, which contribute to the aggrandisement of other capitals ;
Pekin being merely the seat of government of the empire. It is neither
a port nor a place of inland trade or manufacture, and forms no rendez
vous for pleasure and dissipation. (Pp. 149, 439.) The former, on the
other hand, possessed these advantages in an eminent degree.

2 It does not appear in the writings either of the missionaries or of
modern travellers, that mention is made of such lists of the inhabitants
being affixed (at stated periods we may presume) on the outside of
houses; but I have the verbal assurance of Mr. Reeves, who resided
many years in China, and is lately returned to that country* that the
regulation exists at the present day : to which he added his opinion that
it was established not merely on account of the facility it gives to the
officers of revenue and police, but from a regard to delicacy, that there
might be no pretence for intrusion into the apartments of the females.
The practice is adverted to by Mr. Ellis, who says: " The municipal
regulation existing throughout China, which requires that every house
holder should affix on the outside of his house a list of the number and
description of persons dwelling under his roof, ought to afford most
accurate data in forming a census of the population." P. 432.

3 i o Travels of Marco Polo

families, to sell their children to the rich, in order that they
may be fed and brought up in a better manner than their own
poverty would admit.

CHAPTER LXIX

OF THE REVENUES OF THE GRAND KHAN

WE shall now speak of the revenue which the grand khan
draws from the city of Kin-sai and the places within its juris
diction, constituting the ninth division or kingdom of Manji.
In the first place, upon salt, the most productive article, he
levies a yearly duty of eighty tomans of gold, each toman
being eighty thousand saggi, and each saggio fully equal to a
gold florin, and consequently amounting to six millions four
hundred thousand ducats. 1 This vast produce is occasioned by
the vicinity of the province to the sea, and the number of salt
lakes or marshes, in which, during the heat of summer, the
water becomes crystallized, and from whence a quantity of salt
is taken, sufficient for the supply of five of the other divisions oi
the province. 2 There is here cultivated and manufactured a
large quantity of sugar, 3 which pays, as do all other groceries,
three and one-third per cent. The same is also levied upon
the wine, or fermented liquor, made of rice. The twelve classes
of artisans, of whom we have already spoken, as having each
a thousand shops, and also the merchants, as well those who
import the goods into the city, in the first instance, as those

1 Estimating the gold ducat of Venice at ten shillings English, (for the
sake of round numbers,) this revenue derived from the article of salt
would amount to the sum of 3,200,000, which may be thought excessive,
as applying, not to the empire at large, but to that portion of China of
which Hang-cheu-fu was the capital. It must, however, be considered
that all the northern provinces, as well as those of the interior, are sup
plied from the south-eastern parts of the coast, and that the quantity
exported from the places of manufacture must consequently be enor
mous. One half of the duties upon articles of produce is understood to
be paid in kind, and we are informed that the stock of salt collected upon
government account at Tien-sing on the Pe-ho, was calculated by the
gentlemen of Lord Macartney s embassy, at three millions of bags, or
six hundred millions of pounds weight. (Vol. ii. j>. 21.) The gabelle or
revenue from salt, in France, about the year 1780, is stated by M. Necker
to have been 54,000,000 livres, or 2,250,000.

1 Sea salt is produced by a similar process of solar evaporation, in many
of the southern parts of Europe, as well as on the coasts of India.

* " The valleys along the river," says Staunton, speaking of that which
flows by Hang-cheu-fu, " were cultivated chiefly in sugar-canes, then
almost ripe, and about eight feet high." Tom. ii. p. 460.

The City of Ta-pin-zu 3 1 1

who carry them from thence to the interior, or who export them
by sea, pay, in like manner, a duty of three and one-third per
cent.; but goods coming by sea from distant countries and
regions, such as from India, pay ten per cent. So likewise all
native articles of the country, as cattle, the vegetable produce
of the soil, and silk, pay a tithe to the king. The account being
made up in the presence of Marco Polo, he had an opportunity
of seeing that the revenue of his majesty, exclusively of that
arising from salt, already stated, amounted in the year to the
sum of two hundred and ten tomans (each toman being eighty
thousand saggi of gold), or sixteen million eight hundred thou
sand ducats. 1

CHAPTER LXX

OF THE CITY OF TA-PIN-ZU

LEAVING the city of Kin-sai, and travelling one day s journey
towards the south-east, continually passing houses, villas, and
delightful gardens, where every kind of vegetable is produced
in abundance, you arrive at the city of Ta-pin-zu, which is
very handsome and large, and belongs to the jurisdiction of
Kin-sai. 2 The inhabitants worship idols, use paper money,
burn the bodies of their dead, are subjects of the grand khan,
and gain their subsistence by trade and manual arts. This
place not demanding any more particular notice, we shall pro
ceed to speak of the city of Uguiu.

1 This sum is equal to 8,400,000 of our money, and the aggregate to
11,600,000, an amount which the revenues and expenses of our own
country, in recent times, have taught us to consider as almost insigni
ficant.

2 No name resembling the Ta-pin-zu of our text or the Tam-pin-gui of
the Latin versions presents itself, at the distance of one day s journey,
in a southerly direction, from Hang-cheu-fu, nor could it under those
circumstances be a place of more importance than the second rank of
cities P. Magalhanes (p. 10) asserts without hesitation that it is in
tended for Tai-ping-fu in the province of Nan-king or Kiang-nan; but
however unexceptionable the agreement in sound may bo, the situation
of the latter, to the north-west of Hang-cheu, presents a fo;midable diffi
culty, which cannot otherwise be resolved than by supposing that liberties
have been taken with our author s words, and that places which he has
thought proper to notice, although lying out of the direct road, have been
forced by his translators into the line of an itinerary, to which he never
professes to adhere. This remark will be found to apply equally to the
city spoken of in the next chapter.

3 1 2 Travels of Marco Polo

CHAPTER LXXI

OF THE CITY OF UGUIU

FROM Ta-pin-zu, travelling three days towards the south-east,
you come to the city of Uguiu, 1 and still further, in the same
direction, two days journey, you pass in continual succession
so many towns, castles, and other inhabited places, and such
is their vicinity to each other, that to a stranger they have the
appearance of one extended city. All of them are dependent
upon Kin-sai. The people are idolaters, and the country
supplies the necessaries of life in great abundance. Here are
found canes of greater bulk and length than those already
noticed, being four spans in girth and fifteen paces long. 2

CHAPTER LXXII

OF THE CITIES OF GEN-GUI, ZEN-GIAN, AND GIE-ZA

PROCEEDING further, three days journey in the same direction,
you reach the town of Gen-gui, 3 and still advancing to the
south-east, you never cease to meet with towns full of inhabi
tants, who are employed at their trades, and cultivate the soil.
In this part of the province of Manji there are not any sheep to
be seen, but many oxen, cows, buffaloes, and goats, and of
swine a vast number. 4 At the end of the fourth day you
arrive at the city of Zen-gian, built upon a hill that stands
insulated in the river, which, by dividing itself into two

1 The name of U-guiu or U-giu, which is U-gui in the Italian epitomes,
but is omitted in the Basle edition, has an obvious affinity to that of
Hu-cheu on the bank of the lake Tai, not far from Hang-cheu, but like
Tai-ping is situated in a direction opposite to that of south-east, as ex
pressed in the text. [The Paris Latin text calls the town Un-gui.]

a Hu-cheu and the places subsequently mentioned being surrounded
by a low country, and situated in a warm climate, it is reasonable to
suppose that the bamboo cane should there be found in abundance and
perfection, and accordingly Du Halde says: " Le Tche-kiang en est plus
fourni qu aucune autre province. II y en a des forets entieres." Tom.

i. p. 174-

3 Gen-gui, which in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts is written Cheu-
gui, appears to be the Tchu-ki of Du Halde s map, a town of the third
order. [In the Paris Latin text it is Ciansiam.]

4 In the journals of our modern travellers, as well as in the writings
of the missionaries, we find repeated remarks on the paucity of sheep
and abundance of pork in this part of China.

The Viceroyalty of Kon-cha 313

branches, appears to embrace it. These streams take opposite
directions, one of them pursuing its course to the south-east,
and the other to the north-west. 1 The cities last mentioned
are likewise under the dominion of the grand khan, and depen
dent upon Kin-sai. The people worship idols, and subsist by
trade. There is in the country abundance of game, both
beasts and birds. Proceeding further, three days journey, you
reach the large and noble city of Gie-za, which is the last with
in the jurisdiction of Kin-sai. 2 Having passed this city, you
enter upon another kingdom or viceroyalty of Manji, named
Kon-cha.

CHAPTER LXXIII

OF THE KINGDOM OR VICEROYALTY OF KON-CHA, AND ITS

CAPITAL CITY NAMED FU-GIU

UPON leaving the last city of the kingdom or viceroyalty of
Kin-sai, named Gie-za, you enter that of Kon-cha, 3 the prin
cipal city of which is named Fu-giu. 4 In the course of six
days journey through this country, in a south-east direction,
over hills and along valleys, 5 you continually pass towns and

1 That Zen-gian, which in the early Italian epitome is Eian-giari, and
in the early Latin, Cyangy, was intended for the city of Yen-cheu (called
also Nian-cheu), will hardly admit of a doubt; the names approaching
as near as the usual corruptions of the syllable cheu or giu can be expected
to allow. With respect to local circumstances it must be admitted, that
the modern city is not built upon a hill, but at the foot of high mountains,
and just at the meeting (which in ascending rivers is often termed the
branching) of two streams that contribute to form the Tsien-tang-kiang.

2 This name of Gie-za, or, as it appears in the other versions, En-giu
and Cu-gui, belongs evidently to the city of Kiu-cheu, situated as it is,
at the south-western extremity of the province of Che-kiang, on the
border of a distinct viceroyalty, and in the usual, perhaps the only route
to the provinces of Fo-kien and Kuang-tong.

3 Kon-cha, or Kon-ka, as an Italian would pronounce the word, which
is Kon-chay in the early Latin version, and Tonza in the Italian epitome,
seems to have been the name of a viceroyalty that included the provinces
of Fo-kien, Kiang-si, and Kuang-tong; but at the present day, Che-
kiang and Fo-kien are governed by one viceroy, or tsong-tu, as Kuang-tong
and Kiang-si are by another.

* The Fu-giu of our author [Fuchiu of the Paris Latin text] is the city
of Fu-cheu-fu, the capital of the province of Fo-kien. It is here men
tioned incidentally, and not as lying in the direction of his route; but
it appears to be the city afterwards described in chap. Ixxvi.

6 These hills or, more properly, mountains, constitute the chain which
separates the province of Che-kiang from those of Kiang-si and Fo-kien.
The distance from Kiu-cheu to the first considerable town on the south
western side of the mountains may be considered as a journey of six days.

3 14 Travels of Marco Polo

villages, where the necessaries of life are in abundance, and
there is much field sport, particularly of birds. The people
are idolaters, the subjects of the grand khan, and are engaged
in commerce and manufactures. In these parts there are
tigers of great size and strength. Ginger and also galangal 1
are produced in large quantities, as well as other drugs. 2 For
money equal in value to a Venetian silver groat you may have
eighty pounds weight of fresh ginger, so common is its growth.
There is also a vegetable which has all the properties of the
true saffron, as well the smell as the colour, and yet it is not
really saffron. It is held in great estimation, and being an
ingredient in all their dishes, it bears, on that account, a high
price. 3

The people in this part of the country are addicted to eating
human flesh, esteeming it more delicate than any other, pro
vided the death of the person has not been occasioned by
disease. When they advance to combat they throw loose their
hair about their ears, and they paint their faces of a bright
blue colour. They arm themselves with lances and swords,
and all march on foot excepting their chief, who rides on horse
back. They are a most savage race of men, insomuch that
when they slay their enemies in battle, they are anxious to
drink their blood, and afterwards they devour their flesh.
Leaving this subject, we shall now speak of the city of Kue-
lin-fu.

CHAPTER LXXIV

OF THE CITY OF KUE-LIN-FU

THE journey of six days (mentioned in the preceding chapter)
being accomplished, you arrive at the city of Kue-lin-fu,

1 De Guignes, in his account of the articles exported from China, speak
ing of the galanga, says: " C est la racine noueuse d une plante qui croit
a pres de deux pieds de hauteur, et dont les feuilles ressemblent & celles
du myrte." -Tom. iii. p. 254.

2 If I am warranted in the conjecture (which will be found to gain
strength as we advance) that our author s original notes have been
transposed in this place, it will account for the circumstance of the article
tea, the production of this part of China, and distinctly mentioned by
the Arabian travellers of the ninth century, being here omitted in the
enumeration of drugs.

3 By this yellow dye is indubitably meant the curcuma longa. Le
turmerick, ou terra merita, ou curcuma," says De Guignes, " est appele
eu Chinois, cha-kiang; il vient du Quang-tong: cette racine est bonne

The People of Kue-lin-fu 3 1 5

which is of considerable size, and contains three very hand
some bridges, upwards of a hundred paces in length, and eight
paces in width. 1 The women of the place are very handsome,
and live in a state of luxurious ease. There is much raw silk
produced here, and it is manufactured into silk pieces of
various sorts. Cottons are also woven, of coloured threads, 2
which are carried for sale to every part of the province of Manji.
The people employ themselves extensively in commerce, and
export quantities of ginger and galangal. I have been told,
but did not myself see the animal, that there are found at this
place a species of domestic fowls which have no feathers, their
skins being clothed with black hair, resembling the fur of cats. 3
Such a sight must be extraordinary. They lay eggs like other
fowls, and they are good to eat. The multitude of tigers
renders travelling through the country dangerous, unless a
number of persons go in company.

CHAPTER LXXV

OF THE CITY OF UN-GUEN

UPON leaving the city of Kue-lin-fu, and travelling three days,
during which you are continually passing towns and castles,
of which the inhabitants are idolaters, have silk in abundance,
and export it in considerable quantities, you reach the city of

pour la teinture: la plus longue est la meiiieure." (Tom. iii. p. 264.)
But in China it is not commonly, if it is at all, employed in cookery;
whereas amongst the Malays, and other people of the Eastern islands,
it enters into the composition of every dish, whilst it is by them equally
applied to the purposes of a dye-stuff.

1 From its position with respect to the road across the mountains, and
other circumstances, there appears to be reason for agreeing in opinion
with P. Martini, that this is the city of Kien-ning-fu, in the province of
Fo-kien. It must at the same time be observed that the name of Quei-
ling-fu belongs to the capital of the province of Kuang-si; but this lies
at so great a distance from the places already mentioned, and is so en
tirely unconnected with them, that it cannot be considered as the city
here meant, unless on the supposition that the accounts of intermediate
parts have been omitted.

2 The words of the text express no more than that the cotton received
its colour in the yarn, and not in the piece, which would scarcely deserve
notice as a peculiarity; but the Nankin cotton, which is known to be, in
its raw state, of the colour it bears in the manufacture, may perhaps be
that which is meant to be described.

3 The account of this uncommon species of fowl appears to have been
thought too incredible by some early translators; yet the same breed
or one equally singular, is described by Du Halde.

316

Travels of Marco Polo

Uu-guen. 1 This place is remarkable for a great manufacture
of sugar, which is sent from thence to the city of Kanbalu for
the supply of the court. Previously to its being brought
under the dominion of the grand khan, the natives were un
acquainted with the art of manufacturing sugar of a fine
quality, and boiled it in such an imperfect manner, that when
left to cool it remained in the state of a dark-brown paste. 2
But at the time this city became subject to his majesty s gov
ernment, there happened to be at the court some persons from
Babylon 3 who were skilled in the process, and who, being sent
thither, instructed the inhabitants in the mode of refining
the sugar by means of the ashes of certain woods. 4

CHAPTER LXXVI

OF THE CITY OF KAN-GIU

TRAVELLING fifteen miles further in the same direction, you
come to the city of Kan-giu, which belongs to the kingdom or
viceroyalty of Kon-cha, one of the nine divisions of Manji. 5
In this place is stationed a large army for the protection of the
country, and to be always in readiness to act, in the event
of any city manifesting a disposition to rebel. Through the
midst of it passes a river, a mile in breadth, upon the
banks of which, on either side, are extensive and handsome
buildings. In front of these, great numbers of ships are seen
lying, having merchandise on board, and especially sugar, of
which large quantities are manufactured here also. Many

1 With whatever modern name that of Un-guen, or U-gueu (as it
appears in the early Venice epitome), may be thought to accord, it is
evident from the circumstances that it must be one of the cities of the
second or third class, within the jurisdiction of Fu-gui, or Fu-cheu-fu,
and in the neighbourhood of that capital.

3 Sugar in that moist and imperfect state is termed jaggri in most parts
of the East Indies.

3 [Babylon was in the middle ages the name for Cairo in Egypt.]

* It is well known that alkaline substances are used in the process
of granulating sugars. Towards the end of this boiling," says the
Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, " they throw into the juice a strong
lixivium of wood- ashes, with some quick- lime."

6 It cannot be doubted that the word Kan-giu is here intended for
Kuang-cheu or Quang-cheu, the name of the city improperly termed by
Europeans, Canton, being a corruption of Kuang-tong, which belongs
to the province of which it is the capital. It is evident that the Kan-giu
of our author is the Can-su described by the Arabian travellers; and
this latter is proved by the historical events to have been Kuang-cheu,
or Canton.

The Port of Zai-tun 3 1 7

vessels arrive at this port from India, freighted by merchants
who bring with them rich assortments of jewels and pearls,
upon the sale of which they obtain a considerable profit. This
river discharges itself into the sea, at no great distance from the
port named Zai-tun. The ships coming from India ascend the
river as high up as the city, which abounds with every sort of
provision, and has delightful gardens, producing exquisite
fruits.

CHAPTER LXXVII

OF THE CITY AND PORT OF ZAI-TUN, AND THE CITY OF

TIN-GUI

UPON leaving the city of Kan-giu and crossing the river to pro
ceed in a south-easterly direction, you travel during five days
through a well-inhabited country, passing towns, castles, and
substantial dwellings, plentifully supplied with all kinds of
provisions. The road lies over hills, across plains, and through
woods, in which are found many of those shrubs from whence
the camphor is procured. 1 The country abounds also with
game. The inhabitants are idolaters. They are the subjects
of the grand khan, and within the jurisdiction of Kan-giu.
At the end of five days journey, you arrive at the noble and
handsome city of Zai-tun, which has a port on the sea-coast
celebrated for the resort of shipping, loaded with merchandise,
that is afterwards distributed through every part of the pro
vince of Manji. 2 The quantity of pepper imported there is
so considerable, that what is carried to Alexandria, to supply
the demand of the western parts of the world, is trifling in
comparison, perhaps not more than the hundredth part. It is

1 This tree, the laurus camphora of China and J apan, grows to a large size,
and is improperly termed by Ramusio an arboscello, or shrub. Staunton
speaks of " the shining leaves of the thick and spreading camphor- tree,"
-the only species of the laurel genus growing in China, and there a large
and valuable timber tree. It is not to be confounded with the camphor-
tree of Borneo and Sumatra, which is also remarkable for its great size,
but is of a genus entirely distinct from the laurus.

1 This famous port of Zai-tun, named Zarten in the Basle edition, Zai-
zen in the older Latin, and J aitoni in the epitome, is generally supposed
to be the place named Tsuen-cheu by the Chinese (the Suen-tcheou of
Du Halde s map). Yet it may be thought that the description applies
with equal justness to the nearly adjoining port of Hia-muen, called
Emoui by the French and Amoy by the English navigators, which, until
the last century, participated largely with Canton in the foreign com
merce of the empire.

Travels of Marco Polo

indeed impossible to convey an idea of the concourse of mer
chants and the accumulation of goods, in this which is held to
be one of the largest and most commodious ports in the world.
The grand khan derives a vast revenue from this place, as
every merchant is obliged to pay ten per cent, upon the amount
of his investment. The ships are freighted by them at the rate
of thirty per cent, for fine goods, forty-four for pepper, and for
lignum aloes, sandalwood, and other drugs, as well as articles of
trade in general, forty per cent. ; so that it is computed by the
merchants, that their charges, including customs and freight,
amount to half the value of the cargo; and yet upon the half
that remains to them their profit is so considerable, that they
are always disposed to return to the same market with a
further stock of merchandise. The country is delightful.
The people are idolaters, and have all the necessaries of life in
plenty: their disposition is peaceable, and they are fond of
ease and indulgence. Many persons arrive in this city from
the interior parts of India for the purpose of having their
persons ornamented by puncturing with needles (in the manner
before described), as "it is celebrated for the number of its
artists skilled in that practice. 1

The river that flows by the port of Zai-tun is large and rapid,
and is a branch of that which passes the city of Kin-sai. 2 At

1 This assertion may well appear strange and improbable, and must
have been occasioned by some mistake either of arrangement of the
matter or translation of the passage; for it cannot be supposed that
the inhabitants of this most frequented and civilized part of China were
then, or at any historical period, in the habit of puncturing or tattooing
their skins. It may be, that a memorandum on the subject (as in other
instances we have had strong grounds to suspect) belonging to a descrip
tion either of the Malayan islands or of Ava, where the practice prevails,
has been introduced in the wrong place; or, as I am more inclined to
think, that what has been here misunderstood for puncturing the face,
was meant by our author for the art of portrait-painting, in which the
Chinese are such adepts, that few strangers visit Canton without em
ploying a native to take their likeness, or, as it is expressed in the jargon
of the factories, " make handsome face."

* Into this geographical error our author must have been led by the
report of the natives. In all parts of the East there seems to be a dis
position to believe, and to persuade others, that several rivers proceed
from one common source (generally a lake), and afterwards diverge, in
their progress towards the sea; however contrary this may be to the
known operations of nature. That there is no such community of origin
between the river Tsien-tang, upon which Hang-cheu or Kin-sai stands,
and the river Chang, which empties itself at Amoy, is obvious from in
spection of the maps of China; but at the same time it will be seen that
the sources of the Chang, and those of the great river that passes by Fu-
cheu, the capital of the province, are in the same mountains, and may be
said to be intermingled. It may also be observed that the northern
branch of the latter rivpr. which passes the city of Kien-ning, is separated

Manufacture of Porcelain 319

the place where it separates from the principal channel stands
the city of Tin-gui. Of this place there is nothing further to
be observed, than that cups or bowls and dishes of porcelain-
ware are there manufactured. 1 The process was explained to
be as follows. They collect a certain kind of earth, as it were,
from a mine, and laying it in a great heap, suffer it to be ex
posed to the wind, the rain, and the sun, for thirty or forty
years, during which time it is never disturbed. By this it
becomes refined and fit for being wrought into the vessels above
mentioned. Such colours as may be thought proper are then
laid on, and the ware is afterwards baked in ovens or furnaces.
Those persons, therefore, who cause the earth to be dug, collect
it for their children and grandchildren. Great quantities of
the manufacture are sold in the city, and for a Venetian groat
you may purchase eight porcelain cups.

We have now described the viceroyalty of Kon-cha, one of
the nine divisions of Manji, from whence the grand khan draws
as ample a revenue as even from that of Kin-sai. Of the others
we shall not attempt to speak, because Marco Polo did not
himself visit any of their cities, as he has done those of Kin-
sai and Kon-cha. It should be observed that throughout the
province of Manji one general language prevails, and one
uniform manner of writing, yet in the different parts of the
country there is a diversity of dialect, similar to what is found
between the Genoese, the Milanese, the Florentine, and the
dialects of other Italian states, whose inhabitants, although
they have each their peculiar speech, can make themselves
reciprocally understood.

Not having yet completed the subjects upon which Marco
Polo purposed to write, he will now bring this Second Book
to a close, and will commence another with a description of
the countries and provinces of India, distinguishing it into
the Greater, the Lesser, and the Middle India, parts of which
he visited whilst employed in the service of the grand khan,

only by another ridge from the sources of the Tsien-tang, or river of Hang-
cheu; and this sort of connexion of the extremes, by the intervention of
a middle term, may have given rise to the mistaken idea adopted by pur
author, upon a subject of which he was not likely to have any practical
knowledge.

1 The city of Ting-cheu, answering to the name of Tin-gui or Tin-giu,
stands near the western border of the province of Fo-kien, amongst the
mountains that give source to the Chang, mentioned in the preceding
note, but upon a river that empties itself near the city of Chao-cheu, in
the province of Kuang-tong. It is not, however, at the present day the
seat of porcelain works, which are principally carried on at the town of
King-te-ching, in the neighbouring province of Kiang-si.

320 Travels of Marco Polo

who ordered him thither upon different occasions of business,
and afterwards when, accompanied by his father and uncle,
in their returning journey they escorted the queen destined
for king Argon. He will have the opportunity of relating
many extraordinary circumstances observed by himself per
sonally in those countries, but at the same time will not omit
to notice others of which he was informed by persons worthy
of credit, or which were pointed out to him in the sea-chart of
the coasts of India. 1

1 It may be presumed that the sea-charts here spoken of were chiefly
in the hands of Arabian pilots, who navigated from the Persian Gulf to
India and China, and who might have added the results of their experi
ence to the information derived from the geographical work of Ptolemy.

BOOK III

CHAPTER I

OF INDIA,, DISTINGUISHED INTO THE GREATER, LESSER, AND
MIDDLE OF THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF ITS INHABI
TANTS OF MANY REMARKABLE AND EXTRAORDINARY
THINGS TO BE OBSERVED THERE; AND, IN THE FIRST
PLACE, OF THE KIND OF VESSELS EMPLOYED IN NAVIGATION

HAVING treated, in the preceding parts of our work, of
various provinces and regions, we shall now take leave of
them, and proceed to the account of India, the admirable
circumstances of which shall be related. We shall commence
with a description of the ships employed by the merchants,
which are built of fir-timber. 1 They have a single deck, and
below this the space is divided into about sixty small cabins,
fewer or more, according to the size of the vessels, each of
them affording accommodation for one merchant. 2 They are
provided with a good helm. They have four masts, with as
many sails, and some of them have two masts which can be
set up and lowered again, as may be found necessary. 3 Some
ships of the larger class have, besides (the cabins), to the
number of thirteen bulk-heads or divisions in the hold, formed

1 The vegetable productions, and especially the timber, of southern
or maritime India, being different from the kinds known in Europe, it
is improperly (if our author is actually speaking of Indian ships) that
the ship- timber is said in the text to be the abete and zapino, as neither
the abies nor pinus are found (in any accessible situation) between the
tropics. But, irregular as it may seem, there will in the sequel be found
reason to conclude that he is describing ships built in China, although
for the Indian trade.

2 In the Latin of the Basle edition the number of these cabins is stated
at forty, and they are said to be upon, not beneath, the upper deck.
We know little of the interior of Indian vessels before the period of
European intercourse, but in modern times their cabins are usually upon
the after part of the quarter deck.

3 No mention is made of topmasts in any modern description of Chinese
junks; nor is it clear that such are here meant. The expressions may
rather be understood of masts capable of being raised or lowered in the
manner of those belonging to our lighters, and the sense of the passage
may be " They have four masts (with as many sails) ; two of which
may be set up or lowered, as occasion may require."

322 Travels of Marco Polo

of thick planks let into each other (incastrati, mortised or
rabbeted). The object of these is to guard against accidents
which may occasion the vessel to spring a leak, such as striking
on a rock or receiving a stroke from a whale, a circumstance
that not unfrequently occurs; for, when sailing at night, the
motion through the waves causes a white foam that attracts
the notice of the hungry animal. In expectation of meeting
with food, it rushes violently to the spot, strikes the ship, and
often forces in some part of the bottom. The water, running
in at the place where the injury has been sustained, makes its
way to the well, which is always kept clear. The crew, upon
discovering the situation of the leak, immediately remove
the goods from the division affected by the water, which, in
consequence of the boards being so well fitted, cannot
pass from one division to another. They then repair the
damage, and return the goods to that place in the hold from
whence they had been taken. The ships are all double-
planked; that is, they have a course of sheathing-boards laid
over the planking in every part. These are caulked with
oakum both withinside and without, and are fastened with iron
nails. They are not coated with pitch, as the country does not
produce that article, but the bottoms are smeared over with
the following preparation. The people take quick-lime and
hemp, which latter they cut small, and with these, when
pounded together, they mix oil procured from a certain tree,
making of the whole a kind of unguent, which retains its
viscous properties more firmly, and is a better material than
pitch. 1

Ships of the largest size require a crew of three hundred
men; others, two hundred; and some, one hundred and fifty
only, according to their greater or less bulk. They carry
from five to six thousand baskets (or mat bags) of pepper.

1 This mode of preserving the bottoms of their vessels is common to
the Chinese and the Indians. " At Surat," says Grose, " they excel in
the art of ship-building. Their bottoms and sides are composed of
planks let into one another, in the nature, as I apprehend, of what is
called rabbet-work, so that the seams are impenetrable. They have
also a peculiar way of preserving their ships bottoms, by occasionally
rubbing into them an oil they call wood-oil, which the planks imbibe."
(Voyage to the East Indies, vol. i. p. 107.) The mixture of chunam 01
lime with a resinous oil, or with melted dammar, is commonly known
in the dockyards of India by the name of gul-gul. " There would be no
exaggeration," adds Grose, " in averring that they (the natives) build
incomparably the best ships in the world for duration, and that of any
size, even to a thousand tons and upwards. . . . It is not uncommon for
one of them to last a century." -P. 108.

Description of the Indian Ships 323

In former times they were of greater burthen than they are
at present; but the violence of the sea having in many places
broken up the islands, and especially in some of the principal
ports, there is a want of depth of water for vessels of such
draught, and they have on that account been built, in latter
times, of a smaller size. The vessels are likewise moved with
oars or sweeps, each of which requires four men to work it.
Those of the larger class are accompanied by two or three
large barks, capable of containing about one thousand baskets
of pepper, and are manned with sixty, eighty, or one hundred
sailors. These small craft are often employed to tow the
larger, when working their oars, or even under sail, provided
the wind be on the quarter, but not when right aft, because, in
that case, the sails of the larger vessel must becalm those of the
smaller, which would, in consequence, be run down. The ships
also carry with them as many as ten small boats, for the pur
pose of carrying out anchors, for fishing, and a variety of other
services. They are slung over the sides, and lowered into the
water when there is occasion to use them. The barks are in
like manner provided with their small boats. When a ship,
having been on a voyage for a year or more, stands in need of
repair, the practice is to give her a course of sheathing over the
original boarding, forming a third course, which is caulked and
paid in the same manner as the others ; and this, when she needs
further repairs, is repeated, even to the number of six layers,
after which she is condemned as unserviceable and not sea
worthy. Having thus described the shipping, we shall proceed
to the account of India; but in the first instance we shall speak
of certain islands in the part of the ocean where we are at
present, and shall commence with the island named Zipangu.

CHAPTER II

OF THE ISLAND OF ZIPANGU 1

ZIPANGU is an island in the eastern ocean, situated at the dis
tance of about fifteen hundred miles from the main-land, or

1 The name which is here, as well as in the B.M. and Berlin manu
scripts, written Zipangu, in the Basle edition Zipangri, in the older Latin
Cyampagu, and in the early Italian epitomes Cimpagu, is evidently
intended for those islands which we, in a collective sense, term Japan.
By the Chinese they are named Ge-pen (Jy-pen according to the ortho
graphy of De Guignes, or Jih-pun according to that of Morrison), and

324 Travels of Marco Polo

coast of Manji. 1 It is of considerable size; its inhabitants
have fair complexions, are well made, and are civilized in their
manners. Their religion is the worship of idols. They are
independent of every foreign power, and governed only by
their own kings. 2 They have gold in the greatest abundance,
its sources being inexhaustible, 3 but as the king does not
allow of its being exported, few merchants visit the country,
nor is it frequented by much shipping from other parts. To
this circumstance we are to attribute the extraordinary rich
ness of the sovereign s palace, according to what we are told
by those who have access to the place. The entire roof is
covered with a plating of gold, in the same manner as we cover
houses, or more properly churches, with lead. The ceilings of
the halls are of the same precious metal; many of the apart
ments have small tables of pure gold, of considerable thickness ;
and the windows also have golden ornaments. 4 So vast, indeed,
are the riches of the palace, that it is impossible to convey
an idea of them. In this island there are pearls also, in large
quantities, of a red (pink) colour, round in shape, and of great
size, equal in value to, or even exceeding that of the white
pearls. 5 It is customary with one part of the inhabitants to

from thence all the other names are more or less obviously derived. The
terminating syllable gu appears to be the Chinese word kue, signifying
" kingdom," which is commonly annexed to the names of foreign
countries.

1 The distance of the nearest part of the southern island from the
coast of China, near Ning-po, not being more than 500 Italian miles, we
may suppose that our author, in stating it at 1,500, speaks of Chinese
miles, or li, which are in the proportion of something more than one-
third of the former.

2 Political independence is a characteristic of the Japanese nation,
which does not appear, at any period of its history, to have been brought
permanently under a foreign yoke.

8 " Gold, the richest of all metals," says Kaempfer, " is dug up in
several provinces of the Japanese empire." " The emperor claims the
supreme jurisdiction over all the gold mines, and indeed all other mines
in the empire. ... Of the produce of all the mines that are worked, he
claims two-thirds." (Hist, of Japan, vol. i. p. 107.) But of late, as
I was informed," he adds, " the veins . . . not only run scarcer, but
yield not near the quantity of gold they did formerly." Ibid.

* Kasmpfer, speaking of one of the ancient kings of Japan, says, " He
caused a stately palace, named Kojatu, to be built for his residence,
the floors whereof were paved with gold and silver." (Vol. i. p. 82.)
This account, though perhaps fabulous, shows the idea entertained by
the natives of the magnificence of their former sovereigns.

8 " Pearls, by the Japanese called kainotamma," says Ksmpfer,
" which is as much as to say, shell- jewels, are found almost everywhere
about Saikokf, m oysters and several other shells. Everybody is at
liberty to fish them." Vol. i. p. no.

Tartar Expedition Against Japan 325

bury their dead, and with another part to burn them. 1 The
former have a practice of putting one of these pearls into the
mouth of the corpse. There are also found there a number of
precious stones.

Of so great celebrity was the wealth of this island, that a
desire was excited in the breast of the grand khan Kublai,
now reigning, to make the conquest of it, and to annex it to
his dominions. In order to effect this, he fitted out a numer
ous fleet, and embarked a large body of troops, under the
command of two of his principal officers, one of whom was
named Abbacatan, and the other Vonsancin. 2 The expedition
sailed from the ports of Zai-tun and Kin-sai, 3 and, crossing the
intermediate sea, reached the island in safety; but in conse
quence of a jealousy that arose between the two commanders,
one of whom treated the plans of the other with contempt and
resisted the execution of his orders, they were unable to gain
possession of any city or fortified place, with the exception of
one only, which was carried by assault, the garrison having
refused to surrender. Directions were given for putting the
whole to the sword, and in obedience thereto the heads of all
were cut off, excepting of eight persons, who, by the efficacy
of a diabolical charm, consisting of a jewel or amulet intro
duced into the right arm, between the skin and the flesh,
were rendered secure from the effects of iron, either to kill or

1 It is necessary to mention that two religions prevail amongst the
people of Japan: the ancient, or that of the Sintos, who worship spirits,
called by them sin and kami ; and the modern (being subsequent to the
date of the Christian era), or that of the Budsdos, worshippers of the
Indian Buddha, under the names of Fo-to-ke and Budsd. Of these,
the latter only, but who constitute by far the more numerous class, are
in the practice of burning the bodies of their dead. " One thing," says
Kaempfer, " remains worthy of observing, which is, that many, and
perhaps the greatest part, of those who in their lifetime constantly
professed the Sintos religion, and even some of the Siutosjus or moral
ists, recommend their souls, on their death-bed, to the care of the Budsdo
clergy, desiring that the namanda might be sung for them, and their
bodies burnt and buried, after the manner of the Budsdoists. The ad
herents of the Sintos religion do not believe the Pythagorean doctrine of
the transmigration of souls, although most universally received by the
Eastern nations." History of Japan, vol. i. p. 213.

2 These names appear to be intended for Abaka-khan, a Mungal or
Moghul, and Vang-san-chin, a Chinese. Many of the latter nation were
employed by Kublai, both in civil arid military capacities, and rendered
him good service. [In the Paris Latin, the names are Abatar and Von-
sanchi.]

3 By the port of Zai-tun is probably meant Amoy, and by Kin-sai the
port of Ning-po or of Chu-san, which are at the entrance of the river
which flows by Hang-cheu-fu, the Kin-sai of our author.

326

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wound. Upon this discovery being made, they were beaten
with a heavy wooden club, and presently died. 1

It happened, after some time, that a north wind began to
blow with great force, and the ships of the Tartars, which lay
near the shore of the island, were driven foul of each other.
It was determined thereupon, in a council of the officers on
board, that they ought to disengage themselves from the land ;
and accordingly, as soon as the troops were re-embarked, they
stood out to sea. The gale, however, increased to so violent
a degree that a number of the vessels foundered. The people
belonging to them, by floating upon pieces of the wreck, saved
themselves upon an island lying about four miles from the
coast of Zipangu. The other ships, which, not being so near to
the land, did not suffer from the storm, and in which the two
chiefs were embarked, together with the principal officers, or
those whose rank entitled them to command a hundred thou
sand or ten thousand men, directed their course homewards,
and returned to the grand khan. Those of the Tartars who
remained upon the island where they were wrecked, and who
amounted to about thirty thousand men, finding themselves
left without shipping, abandoned by their leaders, and having
neither arms nor provisions, expected nothing less than to
become captives or to perish; especially as the island afforded
no habitations where they could take shelter and refresh them
selves. As soon as the gale ceased and the sea became smooth
and calm, the people from the main island of Zipangu came
over with a large force, in numerous boats, in order to make
prisoners of these shipwrecked Tartars, and having landed, pro
ceeded in search of them, but in a straggling, disorderly manner.
The Tartars, on their part, acted with prudent circumspection,
and, being concealed from view by some high land in the centre
of the island, whilst the enemy were hurrying in pursuit of them
by one road, made a circuit of the coast by another, which
brought them to the place where the fleet of boats was at anchor.
Finding these all abandoned, but with their colours flying, they
instantly seized them, and pushing off from the island, stood
for the principal city of Zipangu, into which, from the appear
ance of the colours, they were suffered to enter unmolested. 2

1 The idea of being rendered invulnerable by the use of amulets is
common amongst the natives of the Eastern islands.

2 If the original operations were directed, as might be presumed,
against the ancient capital, we should infer that the city here spoken of
was Osakka, situated at the mouth of the river upon which, at some
distance from the coast, Mia-ko stands, and which is known to have

The Idols of Japan 327

Here they found few of the inhabitants besides women, whom
they retained for their own use, and drove out all others.
When the king was apprised of what had taken place, he was
much afflicted, and immediately gave directions for a strict
blockade of the city, which was so effectual that not any
person was suffered to enter or to escape from it, during six
months that the siege continued. At the expiration of this
time, the Tartars, despairing of succour, surrendered upon the
condition of their lives being spared. These events took place
in the course of the year 126^ The grand khan having
learned some years after that the unfortunate issue of the ex
pedition was to be attributed to the dissension between the
two commanders, caused the head of one of them to be cut off;
the other he sent to the savage island of Zorza, 2 where it is the
custom to execute criminals in the following manner. They
are wrapped round both arms, in the hide of a buffalo fresh
taken from the beast, which is sewed tight. As this dries, it
compresses the body to such a degree that the sufferer is in
capable of moving or in any manner helping himself, and thus
miserably perishes. 3

CHAPTER III

OF THE NATURE OF THE IDOLS WORSHIPPED IN ZIPANGU, AND
OF THE PEOPLE BEING ADDICTED TO EATING HUMAN
FLESH

IN this island of Zipangu and the others in its vicinity, their
idols are fashioned in a variety of shapes, some of them having

been formerly much frequented by Chinese shipping. But, according to
P. Gaubil, the island was that of Ping-hou or Firando, near the city
of Nangasaki; not then a place of so much importance as it has since
become.

1 There is here a manifest error in the date, which, instead of 1264,
should rather be 1284. In the early Venice epitome it is 1269, [as well
as hi the early texts printed by the Paris Geographical Society ;] and in
the Basle edition, 1289. Our author cannot be made accountable for
these contradictions amongst his transcribers.

a No clue presents itself by which to discover the island meant by the
name of Zorza, or (allowing for the Venetian pronunciation) Jorja. We
should be induced to look for it in some one of the lakes of Tartary.

* This must have been a Tartar, not a Chinese mode of punishment.
In the History of Sinde we are told of its having been inflicted by
Abd-al-malik, khalif of Baghdad, upon one of his generals, who was
accused by certain princesses, his captives, of a heinous offence. " That
monarch," says Pottinger, " was highly enraged at this supposed insult,
and sent an order to the general who was second in command, to sew

Travels of Marco Polo

the heads of oxen, some of swine, of dogs, goats, and many
other animals. Some exhibit the appearance of a single head,
with two countenances ; others of three heads, one of them in
its proper place, and one upon each shoulder. Some have four
arms, others ten, and some an hundred ; those which have the
greatest number being regarded as the most powerful, and
therefore entitled to the most particular worship. 1 When they
are asked by Christians wherefore they give to their deities
these diversified forms, they answer that their fathers did so
before them. " Those who preceded us," they say, " left
them such, and such shall we transmit them to our posterity."
The various ceremonies practised before these idols are so
wicked and diabolical that it would be nothing less than im
piety and an abomination to give an account of them in this
our book. The reader should, however, be informed that the
idolatrous inhabitants of these islands, when they seize the
person of an enemy who has not the means of effecting his
ransom for monev, invite to their house all their relations and

mt J

friends, and putting their prisoner to death, dress and eat the
body, in a convivial manner, asserting that human flesh sur
passes every other in the excellence of its flavour.

Mohummud bin Kasim into a raw hide, and thus forward him to the
presence. . . . Though consciously innocent, he allowed the unjust and
cruel punishment of his sovereign to be inflicted on himself. He died
the third day after." Travels in Beloochistan and Sinde, p. 389.

1 The idols here described belong to the Budsdo, or what Kaempfer
terms the foreign pagan worship, and not to that of the Sintos, whose
objects of veneration, the Sin and Kami, seem to have been the personi
fication of deceased heroes. It is true that Buddha, whom the Japanese
named Buds or Budz, and Siaka, is commonly represented of the natural
human shape, although often of a monstrous size; but, either along
with his religion (said to have been introduced in Japan about the first
century of the Christian era), or, probably, at an antecedent period,
these people, as well as the Chinese, appear to have adopted the multi
form divinities of the Hindu mythology. Many of these, it is well known,
have the heads of various animals, as that of the boar, in the third in
carnation of Vishnu, and of the elephant, in the figures of Ganesa; to
which may be added the bull of Siva, and Hanuman, the prince of mon
keys. Of many-headed deities the instances, in that system, are fre
quent, as the four heads of Brahma, the five of Mahadeva-panchamukhi,
and the trimurti or Hindu triad. Those which exhibit numerous arms
are at least equally common. Such appear to be at this day the idols of
the Japanese; although with some modifications peculiar to themselves.

The Sea of Chin 329

CHAPTER IV

OF THE SEA OF CHIN, BETWEEN THIS ISLAND AND THE

PROVINCE OF MANJI

IT is to be understood that the sea in which the island of
Zipangu is situated is called the Sea of Chin/ and so extensive
is this eastern sea, that according to the report of experienced
pilots and mariners who frequent it, and to whom the truth
must be known, it contains no fewer than seven thousand four
hundred and forty islands, mostly inhabited. 2 It is said that
of the trees which grow in them, there are none that do not
yield a fragrant smell. 3 They produce many spices and drugs,
particularly lignum-aloes and pepper, in great abundance,
both white and black. 4 It is impossible to estimate the value
of the gold and other articles found in the islands; but their
distance from the continent is so great, and the navigation
attended with so much trouble and inconvenience, that the
vessels engaged in the trade, from the ports of Zai-tun and Kin-
sai, do not reap large profits, being obliged to consume a whole
year in their voyage, sailing in the winter and returning in the
summer. For in these regions only two winds prevail ; one of
them during the winter, and the other during the summer
season; so that they must avail themselves of the one for the

1 Whatever uncertainty may prevail respecting the name which the
Chinese themselves give to their country, it is well known that by all
the other people of the East it is denominated Chin and China; the
former being the manner in which the word is pronounced by the Per
sians and natives of Hindustan, and the latter, by the Malays and other
islanders. That which our navigators term the China Sea, is in the
Malayan language invariably called Laut China.

2 The limits of the China Sea, not being accurately denned, it is im
possible to verify this pretended enumeration of its islands, which is
evidently meant to include the Moluccas or those from whence the spices
are chiefly procured.

8 " Les campagnes," says M. Poivre, " sont couvertes be bois odori-
ferens. . . . On y respire un air embaume par une multitude de fleurs
agreables qui se succedent toute 1 annee, et dont 1 odeur suave pen^tre
jusqu Tame, et inspire la volupte la plus seduisante." (Voy. d un
Philosophe, p. 56.) This picture of the Malayan countries, though
certainly overcharged, is a complete justification of our author s report
of their productions.

* It is remarkable that this distinction of white and black pepper,
which is effected by the process of blanching the grains in their ripest
state, should have been noticed at so early a period. Until within the
last half century they were generally supposed in Europe to be the pro
ductions of different plants.

33 Travels of Marco Polo

outward, and of the other for the homeward-bound voyage. 1
These countries are far remote from the continent of India. In
terming this sea the Sea of Chin, we must understand it, never
theless, to be a part of the ocean; for as we speak of the Eng
lish Sea, or of the Egean Sea, do so the eastern people of the
Sea of Chin and of the Indian Sea; whilst all of them are com
prehended under the general term of the ocean. We shall
here cease to treat further of these countries and islands, as
well on account of their lying so far out of the way, as of my not
having visited them personally, and of their not being under
the dominion of the grand khan. 2 We return now to Zai-tun.

CHAPTER V

OF THE GULF OF KEINAN, AND OF ITS RIVERS

DEPARTING from the port of Zai-tun, and steering a westerly
course, but inclining to the south, for fifteen hundred miles,
you pass the gulf named Keinan, 3 which extends to the dis
tance of two months navigation, along its northern shore,
where it bounds the southern part of the province of Manji,
and from thence to where it approaches the countries of Ania,

1 Such also at the present day is the state of navigation amongst the
Chinese, whose junks are employed in trading to Java and other islands
of the archipelago, but not being adapted, either by their construction
or mode of rigging, to work against a contrary wind, require two mon
soons for the performance of their outward and homeward-bound voyages.
The account here given of these periodical winds is substantially correct.
In the China seas the north-east or winter monsoon, being that which is
favourable for sailing from the southern ports of China to the straits of
Malacca or Java, commences about the month of October or November,
and lasts till about February or March: the south-west monsoon sets
in about April or May, and blows till August or September, during which
latter season the junks return homewards.

* There is much reason to believe that, whilst employed in the service
of the emperor, Marco Polo had visited some of the eastern islands, lying
the nearest to the coast of China; such, perhaps, as the Philippines.
A voyage of this nature is directly mentioned in book i. chap. i. sect. 5.
By those " lying far out of the way," may be understood the Moluccas,
whose valuable productions must always have made their existence
known.

* Keinan, or, according to the Italian orthography, Cheinan, is indis
putably Hai-nan, the name of a large and important island, lying off the
southern coast of China, and by some enumerated as a sixteenth province
of that empire. It may naturally be supposed to have communicated
its appellation to the bight or gulf in which it is situated, although by
our seamen the latter is commonly termed the gulf of Tung-king.

The Country of Ziamba 331

Toloman, and many others already mentioned. 1 Within this
gulf there are a multitude of islands, for the most part well
inhabited, 2 about the coasts of which much gold-dust is col
lected from the sea, at those places where the rivers discharge
themselves. Copper also and many other articles are found
there, 3 and with these a trade is carried on, the one island
supplying what another does not produce. They traffic also
with the people of the continent, exchanging their gold and
copper for such necessaries as they may require. In the most
of these islands grain is raised in abundance. This gulf is so
extensive and the inhabitants so numerous, that it appears
like another world.

CHAPTER VI

OF THE COUNTRY OF ZIAMBA, OF THE KING OF THAT COUNTRY,,
AND OF HIS BECOMING TRIBUTARY TO THE GRAND KHAN

WE now resume our former subject. Upon leaving Zai-tun
and navigating fifteen hundred miles across this gulf, as has
been mentioned, you arrive at a country named Ziamba, which
is of great extent, and rich. 4 It is governed by its own
kings, and has its peculiar language. The inhabitants are

1 By Ania must be understood the country of Anan or Tung-king, by
the Portuguese written Anam or Annam, from whence the language of
that country, as well as of Kochinchina, is termed in the dictionary of
Alexander de Rhodes, " lingua Annamitica." The Chinese, who never
commence a word with the sound of A, pronounce it Ngan-nan; as it
stands in the Jesuits and D Anville s maps. With respect to the name
of Toloman, some conjectures have been offered in a note on a former
page. From the context we might be led to suppose it was here meant
for Kochinchina, the Kiao-chi of the Chinese; but neither is this war
ranted by any resemblance of sound, nor does it appear from the former
part of the itinerary (b. i. c. xlviii.) that Toloman or Tholoman was
situated upon the coast. Our author may not, however, have intended
by this passage to assert its maritime situation, but only to say that as
the gulf was bounded on the one side by China, so it was, on the other,
by the land which contains Anan or Tung-king, Toloman (which may be
Po-lo-man, the country of the Burmans, according to Chinese pronun
ciation), and other provinces of which he had